CHAPTER TWO

PEOPLES AND CULTURES IN ETHIOPIA

AND THE HORN
MAIN CONTENTS OF THE CHAPTER

Human Evolution
Neolithic Revolution
The Peopling of the Region
Religion and Religious Processes
THE PURPOSE
 To show the region is home to diverse peoples, and cultures (languages, religion,
customs…) and economic activities.
 HUMAN EVOLUTION
Brainstorming Question
How do you think human beings came into being?
 Con’s
Regarding origin of human being, there are two divergent views.

1. The creationist view that argues super natural force or God created non-living
and living things including human being with complete physical shape and
structure.

2. The evolutionist view asserts that living things and non living things
developed from small beings through gradual changes of many million years.
The earliest evolution theorist Charles Darwin (1809- 1882) published Theory
of Evolution or Origin of Species by Natural Selection (1859) and Descent of
Man (1871)
 Human Evolution
Human evolution accounts only a fraction of history of the globe since about 4. 5
billion years before present (B. P.).

The earliest life came into being between 3 and 1 billion years B. P. In the form of
Blue green algae, small plants, fishes, birds and other small beings at c. 800 million
years B. P.

Primates branched of placental mammal stream as of 200-170 million years B. P.

and

Primates developed into Pongidae (such as gorilla, chimpanzee, orangutan, gibbon

etc.) while others evolved into Hominidae (human ancestors).
 Con’s
Scientists have considered East African Rift Valley as cradle of humanity.
 A fossil named as Chororapithecus dated 10 million B. P. was discovered in Ancar
(in Hararghe) in 2007.
 Ardipithecus ramidus kadabba (dated 5.8-5.2 million years BP) was discovered in
Middle Awash
 Ardipithecus Ramidus (dated 4. 2 million B.P.) was discovered by Tim D. White at
Aramis is Afar in 1994 A. D.
 Fossil termed as Australopithecus Afarnesis/Lucy/Dinkinesh (dated c. 3.18 million
years B.P.) was discovered by Donald Carl Johnson at Hadar in 1974 A.D.
 Con’s
The development of the human brain was the next stage of main feature of human
evolution.

This produced the genus Homo, believed to have emerged 2-2.5 million years B.P.

Different evidences of the genus homo have been recovered in different parts of
Ethiopia and the Horn.

HOMO HABILIS

The word homo habilis derived from Latin terms "Homo" (human being) and
"Habilis" (skillful use of hands)

It has been found in the Lower Omo dated 1.9 million years B. P.
 Con’s
HOMO ERECTUS

Homo erectus (walking upright, dated 1. 6 million years B. P.) was discovered at
Melka Kunture, Konso Gardula and Gadeb with 900-1100 cc brain size.

Homo erectus have originated in Africa and then spread out to the rest of the world.

They invented fire and started burial practice.

ARCHAIC HOMO SAPIENS

Archaic homo sapiens (knowledgeable human being, dated 400, 000 years B.P.)
named Bodo with brain size of 1300-1400cc was discovered in Middle Awash.
 Con’s

 HOMO SAPIENS-SAPIENS

Homo sapiens-sapiens dated 100, 000 years B.P. were discovered at Porc Epic
near Dire Dawa, and Kibish around Lower Omo (in 1967).

In 2004, Kibish fossils were re-dated to 195, 000 B. P, the oldest date in the
world for modern Homo sapiens.

Homo sapiens idaltu, found in Middle Awash in 1997, lived about 160, 000
years B.P.
 Con’s

 Cultural evolution is related to technological changes that brought socio-economic

transformation on human life.

 It can be conventionally grouped in to

 Stone Age

 Bronze Age and

 Iron Age

 Stone tools had been the first technologies to be developed by human beings. By taking their
features, ways and period of production, stone tools can be grouped in to three
 Mode I

 Mode II and

 Mode III
  MODE I

They are known as Olduwan, which was named based on the first
report made at Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania.
These stone tools are mainly characterized by crude and mono-facial
styles, and were produced by the direct percussion.
Dikika, Gona and at Shungura in Afar
  MODE II

They known as Acheulean, named after the first report at St. Acheul,
France.

They were produced by indirect percussion, by using hand-ax or

hammer, and mainly characterized by bifacial, pointed and convex
features.

Acheulian tools (over a million years old) were found at Kella, Middle
Awash in 1963.
  MODE III
Sangoon stone tools are characterized by flexible and finest form of production
by the use of obsidian.

Homo sapiens produced Sangoon tools that trace back up to 300,000 years B. P.

Gademotta site in central Ethiopian Rift Valley has been dated back to 200, 000
B. P.

Other vital sites such as Gorgora, Ki’one and Yabello in Ethiopia and
Midhidhishi and Gudgud in Somalia.
 Con’s
The period of the usage of lithus/ stone tools is divided into three
sub-periods.
1. Paleolithic (Old Stone Age) up to 11, 000 B.P.
 This was the period when human being developed language with shelter in
cave using stone, bone, wood, furs & skin materials to prepare food and
clothing.
 There was sex-age labor division with able-bodied males as hunters of fauna,
and children and females as gatherers of flora.
 Con’s

2. Mesolithic/ middle Stone Age (11, 000-10,000 B.P.) was transition

between Old and Neolithic/New Stone Ages.

3. Neolithic Revolution

During the Neolithic period

Human beings transformed from mobile to sedentary way of life.

This was a radical shift involving changes from hunting and gathering to the
domestication of plants and animals.
 Neolithic Revolution
Brainstorming Question
What do you know about the domestication of plants and
animals?
 Neolithic Revolution
During this period human beings transformed from mobile to sedentary way of
life.
The process of domestication took place independently in the various parts of the
world.
In Ethiopia and the Horn chiefly in the more elevated and wetter-parts, people
cultivated plants including Teff (Eragrotis teff), dagussa (Eleusine coracana), nug
(Guzotia abyssinica), enset (Ensete ventricosum) etc.
The domestication of enset plant (Ensete edule) reduced shifting cultivation
(continuous clearing of new plots), slowing down soil exhaustion.
 THE PEOPLING OF THE REGION
Languages and Linguistic Processes

 Ethiopia and the Horn in general is marked by ethnic and linguistic

diversity.
 There are about 90 languages with 200 dialects in Ethiopia and the Horn.

 Linguists classify languages of Ethiopia and the Horn into two major
language super families. These are
S Afro-Asiatic and

S Nilo-Saharan
 Con’s

Afro-Asiatic: this super family is sub-divided into the following families:

Cushitic: linguists divided this language family into four branches:

 Northern: is represented by Beja, spoken in northwestern Eritrea bordering the Sudan

 Central: Agaw includes Awign, Kunfel, Qimant; Hamtanga and Bilen

 Eastern: this includes diversified linguistic groups like Afar, Ale, Arbore, Baiso, Burji,

Darashe, Dasanech, Gedeo, Hadiya, Halaba, Kambata, Konso, Libido, Mosiye, Oromo,

Saho, Sidama, Somali, Tambaro, Tsemai, etc.

 Southern: represented by Dhalo in Kenya and Nbugua in Tanzania.

 Con’s
Semitic: is divided into two:
North: Ge'ez, Rashaida (spoken around Eritrea-Sudanese border);
Tigre (spoken in Eritrean Lowland); Tigrigna (spoken in highland
Eritrea and Tigray).
South: is further divided into two
 Transverse: Amharic, Argoba, Harari, Silte, Wolane and Zay.
 Outer: Gafat (extinct), Gurage and Mesmes (endangered)
 Con’s

 Omotic: Anfillo, Ari, Bambasi, Basketo, Bench, Boro (Shinasha),

Chara, Dawro, Dime, Dizi, Doko, Dorze, Gamo, Ganza, Gayil, Gofa,
Hamer-Banna, Hozo, Kachama-Ganjule, Karo, Keficho, Konta,
Korete, Male, Melo, Nayi, Oyda, Sezo, Shekkacho, Sheko, Wolayita,
Yem and Zayse.
 Con’s

 NILO-SAHARAN:

Anywa, Berta, Gumuz, Kacipo-Balesi, Komo, Kunama, Kwama,

Kwegu, Majang, Mi'en, Murle, Mursi, Nuer, Nyangatom, Opuo,
Shabo, Suri& Uduk.
 SETTLEMENT PATTERNS

 A settlement pattern is the distribution of peoples across the landscape.

 It is the results of long historical processes in northeast Africa. In some
areas, settlement was dense and in other areas sparse. Some people
inhabited extensive highlands and others the lowlands.
 Environmental, socio-economic, and political processes significantly
shaped and reshaped the spatial distribution of peoples in the region.
 Con’s

The Cushitic and Semitic peoples had inhabited the area between the Red Sea
in the east and Blue Nile in the west from where they dispersed to different
directions.

The Cushite's have evolved to be the largest linguistic group in Ethiopia and
the Horn and have also spread over wide areas from Sudan to Tanzania.

Similarly, the Semitic peoples spread over large area and eventually settled the
northern, north central, northeastern, south central and eastern parts of
Ethiopia and the Horn. The Semites are the second majority people next to the
Cushite's.
 Con’s

Except the Shinasha, who live in Benishangul-Gumuz and the South

Mao in Wallagga, the majority of Omotic peoples have inhabited

southwestern Ethiopia along the Omo River basin.

The Nilotes are largely settled along the Ethiopia-Sudanese border

although some of the Chari-Nile family inhabited as far as southern

Omo.
 ECONOMIC FORMATIONS
The domestication of plants and animals gave humanity two
interdependent modes of life agriculture and pastoralism.
A predominantly pastoral economy has characterized the eastern
lowland region since early periods.
Pastoral economy has been the most common economic practice
among the Afar, Saho and Somali as well as Karayu and Borana
Oromo.
 Con’s

 The plateaus have sustained plough agriculture for thousands of years

supporting sizable populations.
 Majority of the populations were engaged in mixed farming.

 It is here that sedentary agriculture had been started and advanced at least
since 10, 000 years B. P. by the Cushite's, Semites and Omotic groups.
 In the sparsely populated western lowland region, the dominant economic
formations were pastoralism, shifting agriculture, fishing, apiculture and
hunting.
 Con’s

The Nilotes along the Blue Nile and Baro-Akobo Rivers

have been shifting cultivators where sorghum has been a
staple food.
Among majority Nilotic communities, cattle have high
economic and social values.
RELIGION AND RELIGIOUS PROCESSES

 INDIGENOUS RELIGION

 This includes a variety of religious beliefs and practices, which are

native to the region and have been followed by the local people since
ancient times.
 A distinctive mark of indigenous religion is belief in one Supreme
Being, but special powers are attributed to natural phenomena, which
are considered sacred.
 Con’s

 THE OROMO WAAQEFFANNAA

 Waaqeffanna is based on the existence of one Supreme Being called

Waqa.
 Waqa's power is manifested through the spirits called Ayyana.

 The major spirits include Abdar/Dache (soil fertility spirit), Atete (women
or human and animal fertility spirit), Awayi/Tiyyana (sanctity spirit), Balas
(victory spirit), Chato/Dora (wild animals defender), Gijare/ Nabi (father
and mother’s sprit), Jaricha (peace spirit) and Qasa (anti-disease spirit).
 Con’s

In the autumn and spring seasons every year at the edge of ever-flowing
river there is thanks giving festival called Irrecha.
Effective relationship between Ayyana and Oromo has been maintained
by respected expert known as Qaalluu for male and Qaallitti for female.
Qaalluu or Qaallitti care for spiritual wellbeing as well as influence socio-
economic & political life of the community.
Place of worship or Qaalluu house is called Galmaa located on
hilltop/side or in grove of large trees.
 Con’s

 THE HADIYA'S WA’A

The indigenous religion of Hadiyya called Fandannano.

The Supreme Being in Hadiyya is known as Wa’a.

It is believed to exist before everything or create world.

Its eyes are represented by elincho (sun) & aganna (moon).

Spirits like Jarra (male’s protector), Idoota (female’s guard), Hausula, Qedane
& Worriqa attracted most of prayers and sacrifices at Shonkolla & Kallalamo
mountains chosen by Anjancho & Jaramanjcho.
 Con’s

 The Kambata have Negita or Aricho Magano/Sky God and religious officials
known as Magnancho.
 The Gedeo called the Supreme Being, Mageno and had thanks giving
ceremony called Deraro.
 The Konso religion centered on worship of Waaq/ Wakh.
 The Gojjam Agaw used to call the Supreme Being Diban (Sky God).
 Among sections of the Gurage, there have been Waq/Goita (supreme deity),
Bozha (thunder God) and Damwamwit (health Goddess).
 Con’s

The Gurage and the Yem had a common deity known as Abba at
Enar (Henar).
The Yem worshipped Ha’o (Sky God).
 So’ala clan was considered as the top in religious duties as it was in charge of
Shashokam (the most vital deity).
 Religious functions were performed through couriers in each village called
Magos.
 The Konta’s spirit-cult was called Docho.
 Con’s

 THE WOLAYTA’S TOSO

The Wolaita God is known as Toso and spirit as Ayyana including

 Tawa Awa/Moytiliya (father’s spirit)
 Sawuna (justice spirit)
 Wombo (rain spirit)
 Kuchuruwa (emergency spirit)
 Gomashera (war spirit) etc.

Annual worship of spirits was performed at a sacred place called Mitta.

People gathered around tree called Dongowa which varied from clan to clan.
 Con’s

 KAFFA’S YERO

Kaffa called the Supreme Being as Yero and spirit as Eqo

A person who hosts Eqo is known as Alamo or eke-nayo

Father of all spirits is dochi or dehe-tateno.

Harvest spirit is called Kollo and sacrifice to it is dejo.

Earth and area spirits are known as Showe-kollo and Dude-baro

 Con’s

NUER’S KUOTH NHIAL

Believe in the coming of God through rain, lightning and thunder, and
rainbow is necklace of God.

Sun and moon as well as other entities are also manifestation or sign
of God.

WiW (spirit of war) associated with thunder.

 Con’s

 JUDAISM

 Judaism is the religion of the ancient Jewish/Hebrew people.

 It is considered to be the expression of the covenant that

Yahweh/Jehovah/God established with the Israeli.

 It has been followed in Ethiopia and the Horn by the people called Beta Israel
since 4th c.

The Bete-Israel practiced Haymanot (religious practices, which are generally

recognized as Israelite religion that differs from Rabbinic Judaism).
 Con’s

Many of the Bete-Israel accounts of their own origins from

 The very ancient migration of the Tribe of Dan to Ethiopia, perhaps at the
time of the Exodus (1400-1200 B.C.).
 The later crises in Judea, split of the northern Kingdom of Israel from the
southern Kingdom of Judah after the death of King Solomon or Babylonian
Exile.
 During Menilek I, who is believed to be the son of King Solomon of ancient
Israel and Makeda, ancient Queen of Saba (Sheba), and considered to be the
first Solomonic Emperor of Ethiopia.
 Con’s

 Another group of Jews is said to have been arrived in Ethiopia led by Azonos
and Phinhas in 6th century A.D.
 Still others are said to have been Jewish immigrants intermarried with the
Agaws.
 Whatever the case, the Jews appear to have been isolated from mainstream
Jewish for at least a millennium.
 The Jewish developed and lived for centuries in northern and northwestern
Ethiopia.
 Con’s

 CHRISTIANITY

Aksumite King Ezana (r. 320-360 AD) was the first to embrace Christianity

Instrumental in his conversion were Syrian brothers, Aedesius & Fremnatos

(Frementius).

When Fremnatos visited Alexandria, Patriarch Atnatewos (328-373),

appointed him first Bishop of Ethiopia under title Aba Salama.

 This made Ethiopian Orthodox Church (EOC) subservient to Coptic in Egypt

until full independence.
 Con’s

Consecration of bishops from Coptic Church in Egypt continued

until 1959, when Abune Baslios became the first Ethiopian
Patriarch.
Christianity was further expanded to the mass of the society in
later part of 5th century, during the reign of Ella Amida II (478-86)
by the Nine Saints.
 Con’s

Name Origin Church/Monastry Location of the Church

Abuna Aregawwi (Abba Rome Debre Damo Eastern Tigray
Za Mika’el)
Abuna Isaq (Abba Rome Debre Gerima Medera (East of Adwa )
Gerima)

Abba Pentelwon Rome Debre Pentelwon Asbo (North East of

Aksum)

Abba Afse Ladocia Debre Afse Yeha (Northeast of

Aksum)

Abba Alef Qa’esare’a Debre Haleluya Biheza (Northeast of

Aksum)

Abba Gubba Cilicia Debre Gubba West of Medera

Abba Liqanos Constantinople Debre Qonasel North of Aksum
Abba Sehama Antioch Tsedania Southeast of Adwa
Abba Yima’ata Qosa’iti Debre Yima’ata Ger’alta
 Con’s

 Then expansion of Christianity continued in Zagwe period (1150-1270) and

chiefly gained fresh momentum during the early Medieval Period (1270-1527),
when many churches and monasteries were constructed.

 These include Rock-hewn churches of Lalibela, Debra-Bizan of Hamasen in Eritrea;

Debra-Hayiq in Wollo, Debre-Dima and Debre-Werq in Gojjam; Debra-Libanos in
Shewa, Birbir Mariam in Gamo and Debre-Asabot on the way to Harar.

 These churches and monasteries are not merely religious centers, but served through
the ages as repositories of ancient manuscripts and precious objects of art.
 Con’s

 From mid 16th to the early 17th, Jesuits tried to convert Monophysite EOC to
Dyophysite Catholic. Yet, this led to bloody conflicts that in turn led to expulsion of the
Jesuits.
 However, the Jesuits intervention triggered religious controversies within EOC that is
discussed in subsequent units.
 As of 1804, missionaries’ religious expansion was one of the dominant themes of
treaties concluded between European diplomats and Ethiopian authorities.
 The Catholic Giuseppe Sapeto (Lazarist mission founder), Giustino De Jacobis
(Capuchin order founder), Cardinal Massaja, Antoine and Arnauld d'Abbadie were active.
 Con’s
 Anglican Church Missionary Society (ACMS), Church Missionary Society of
London (CMSL) and Wesleyan Methodist Society led Protestant missionaries
and their major leaders were Samuel Gobat, C.W. Isenberg and J. L. Krapf.
 Systematic approach of trained Protestants enabled them to win
confidence of local people. They translated spiritual books into vernaculars.
 They adopted old names for Supreme Being like Waqayyo, Toso etc. and used
them in new versions as equivalent to God .
 Con’s

Village schools were established as centers of preaching the faith.

These schools were open to all children of chiefs and farmers.
They also provided medical facilities. All these attracted a large
number of followers. Eventually, continuous and systematic
indoctrinations seem to have resulted in grafting of new teaching on
indigenous religion.
 Con’s

ISLAM

ↅ Islam was first preached by Prophet Mohammed.

ↅ When his teachings faced opposition from the Quraysh rulers,

Aksumite king Armah Ella gave asylum for the early followers
including his daughter Rukiya & her husband Uthman and his future
wives Umm Habiba and Umm Salma led by Jafar Ali Talib from 615-
628 A. D.
 Con’s
ↅ Subsequently, Islam spread to the Horn of Africa not through Jihad, but through
peaceful ways including trade.
ↅ Islam was well established in Dahlak (Alalay) Islands on the Red Sea by the
beginning of 8th c.
ↅ In the early 10th c, the Muslim community on the islands developed a sultanate.
ↅ In due course, Muslims settled other places on the Red Sea coast. It was from
these coastal areas that Islam gradually spread among the predominantly pastoral
communities of the interior, largely through the agency of preachers and
merchants.
 Con’s
ↅ The Dahlak route played a minor role in introduction of Islam into the

interior where Christianity was strongly established.

ↅ The port of Zeila on western coast of Gulf of Aden served as an
important gateway for the introduction of Islam into the present day
Shewa, Wollo and Hararghe.
 Con’s
ↅ Islam firmly established itself in the coastal areas by the 8 th and 9th c .

ↅ From there, it radiated to central, southern, and eastern Ethiopia through the role
of Muslim clerics who followed in the footsteps of traders.
ↅ In this regard, it should be noted that Sheikh Hussein of Bale, a Muslim saint of
medieval period, played very important role in the expansion of Islam into Bale,
Arsi and other southeastern parts of Ethiopia and the Horn.
ↅ Another Islamic center in this region is Sof Umar shrine.
 Con’s

ↅ Islam was introduced into Somali territories in 8th century A. D.

through Benadir coasts of Moqadishu, Brava and Merca. Abu
Bakr Ibn Fukura al Din Sahil set up Moqadishu Minirate c.1269.
ↅ The mosques, Islamic learning and pilgrimage centers have
been the depositories of cultures, traditions and literature of
local Muslims.
 Con’s

 Islam was further expanded by mystical orders (turuq, singular tariqa).

 Among these, the Qadiriyya (named after Hanbali jurist Abd al-Qadir al-Jilani,
1077-1166) emphasized collective devotion (hadra).
 Ahmadiyya, which had been set up by Ahmad Ibn Idris al Fasi of Fez in Morocco
(1760-1837) stressed austerity, turban, and veil.
 It had contacts with Tijaniyya (named after Abu l-Abbas Ahmad b. Muhammad
b. al-Mukhtar al Tijani, 1737- 1815) and Summaniyya (named after Muhammad
b. Abd al-Karim al Sammāni, 1718-75).
 The sheiks of these orders expanded Islam as far as the Gibe region.