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Data Warehousing and Data Mining

B.TECH V Semester (R 18)
(2020-2021)
 MODULE – 1
DATA WAREHOUSING
SYLLABUS :

MODULE-I DATA WAREHOUSING

Introduction to Data warehouse, A Multi-dimensional data model-
Star, Snow flake and Fact constellation schemas, Measures, Concept
hierarchy, Data warehouse architecture- A three tier Data
warehouse architecture, types of OLAP servers, Data warehouse
Implementation, Data Marts, Differences between OLAT and OLTP.
COURSE OUTCOMES MAPPED WITH MODULE- I
CO Course Outcomes Blooms
Taxonomy
CO 1 Relate knowledge discovery in databases Understand
(KDD) process with the help of data
warehouse fundamentals and data
mining functionalities
 Contents
 Introduction to Data warehouse

 A Multi-dimensional data model-

Star
Snow flake
Fact constellation schemas
 Measures

 Concept hierarchy

 A three tier Data warehouse architecture

 Types of OLAP servers

 Data warehouse Implementation 5

 Data Marts
 What is a Data Warehouse?
• Defined in many different ways, but not rigorously.
– A decision support database that is maintained separately from
the organization’s operational database
– Support information processing by providing a solid platform of
consolidated, historical data for analysis.
• “A data warehouse is a subject-oriented, integrated, time-variant,
and nonvolatile collection of data in support of management’s
decision-making process.”—W. H. Inmon
• Data warehousing:
– The process of constructing and using data warehouses
Data Warehouse—Subject-Oriented
• Organized around major subjects, such as customer, product, sales
• Focusing on the modeling and analysis of data for decision makers,
not on daily operations or transaction processing
• Provide a simple and concise view around particular subject issues
by excluding data that are not useful in the decision support process
 Data Warehouse—Integrated

• Constructed by integrating multiple, heterogeneous data sources

– relational databases, flat files, on-line transaction records
• Data cleaning and data integration techniques are applied.
– Ensure consistency in naming conventions, encoding structures,
attribute measures, etc. among different data sources
• E.g., Hotel price: currency, tax, breakfast covered, etc.
– When data is moved to the warehouse, it is converted.
 Data Warehouse—Time Variant
• The time horizon for the data warehouse is significantly longer than
that of operational systems
– Operational database: current value data
– Data warehouse data: provide information from a historical
perspective (e.g., past 5-10 years)
• Every key structure in the data warehouse
– Contains an element of time, explicitly or implicitly
– But the key of operational data may or may not contain “time
element”
 Data Warehouse—Nonvolatile

• A physically separate store of data transformed from the

operational environment
• Operational update of data does not occur in the data warehouse
environment
– Does not require transaction processing, recovery, and
concurrency control mechanisms
– Requires only two operations in data accessing:
• initial loading of data and access of data
Data Warehouse vs. Heterogeneous DBMS
• Traditional heterogeneous DB integration: A query driven approach
– Build wrappers/mediators on top of heterogeneous databases

– When a query is posed to a client site, a meta-dictionary is used to

translate the query into queries appropriate for individual
heterogeneous sites involved, and the results are integrated into a
global answer set
– Complex information filtering, compete for resources
• Data warehouse: update-driven, high performance

– Information from heterogeneous sources is integrated in advance and

stored in warehouses for direct query and analysis
Data Warehouse vs. Operational DBMS

• OLTP (on-line transaction processing)

– Major task of traditional relational DBMS
– Day-to-day operations: purchasing, inventory, banking,
manufacturing, payroll, registration, accounting, etc.
• OLAP (on-line analytical processing)
– Major task of data warehouse system
– Data analysis and decision making
• Distinct features (OLTP vs. OLAP):
– User and system orientation: customer vs. market
– Data contents: current, detailed vs. historical, consolidated
– Database design: ER + application vs. star + subject
– View: current, local vs. evolutionary, integrated
– Access patterns: update vs. read-only but complex queries
 OLTP vs. OLAP
OLTP OLAP
users clerk, IT professional knowledge worker
function day to day operations decision support
DB design application-oriented subject-oriented
data current, up-to-date historical,
detailed, flat relational summarized, multidimensional
isolated integrated, consolidated
usage repetitive ad-hoc
access read/write lots of scans
index/hash on prim. key
unit of work short, simple transaction complex query
# records accessed tens millions
#users thousands hundreds
DB size 100MB-GB 100GB-TB
metric transaction throughput query throughput, response
Why a Separate Data Warehouse?
• High performance for both systems
– DBMS— tuned for OLTP: access methods, indexing, concurrency
control, recovery
– Warehouse—tuned for OLAP: complex OLAP queries,
multidimensional view, consolidation
• Different functions and different data:
– missing data: Decision support requires historical data which
operational DBs do not typically maintain
– data consolidation: DS requires consolidation (aggregation,
summarization) of data from heterogeneous sources
– data quality: different sources typically use inconsistent data
representations, codes and formats which have to be reconciled
• Note: There are more and more systems which perform OLAP analysis
directly on relational databases
 From Tables and Spreadsheets to Data Cubes

• A data warehouse is based on a multidimensional data model which

views data in the form of a data cube
• A data cube, such as sales, allows data to be modeled and viewed in
multiple dimensions
– Dimension tables, such as item (item_name, brand, type), or
time(day, week, month, quarter, year)
– Fact table contains measures (such as dollars_sold) and keys to each
of the related dimension tables
• In data warehousing literature, an n-D base cube is called a base cuboid.
The top most 0-D cuboid, which holds the highest-level of
summarization, is called the apex cuboid. The lattice of cuboids forms a
data cube.
 Multidimensional Data Model

Fig: A 2-D view of sales data for AllElectronics according to the

dimensions time and item, where the sales are from branches located
in the city of Vancouver.
 Multidimensional Data Model

Fig: A 3-D view of sales data for AllElectronics, according to the

dimensions time, item, and location.
 Multidimensional Data Model

Fig: 3-D data cube representation of the data

 Multidimensional Data Model

Fig: A 4-D data cube representation of sales data, according to the

dimensions time, item, location, and supplier.
 Multidimensional Data Model

Fig: Lattice of cuboids

Conceptual Modeling of Data Warehouses

• Modeling data warehouses: dimensions & measures

– Star schema: A fact table in the middle connected to a set of
dimension tables
– Snowflake schema: A refinement of star schema
where some dimensional hierarchy is normalized into a
set of smaller dimension tables, forming a shape
similar to snowflake
– Fact constellations: Multiple fact tables share
dimension tables, viewed as a collection of stars,
therefore called galaxy schema or fact constellation
Example of Star Schema
Example of Snowflake Schema
Example of Fact Constellation
 A Concept Hierarchy: Dimension (location)

all all

region Europe ... North_America

country Germany ... Spain Canada ... Mexico

city Frankfurt ... Vancouver ... Toronto

office L. Chan ... M. Wind

 Data Cube Measures: Three Categories

• Distributive: if the result derived by applying the function to n

aggregate values is the same as that derived by applying the
function on all the data without partitioning
• E.g., count(), sum(), min(), max()
• Algebraic: if it can be computed by an algebraic function with M
arguments (where M is a bounded integer), each of which is
obtained by applying a distributive aggregate function
• E.g., avg(), min_N(), standard_deviation()
• Holistic: if there is no constant bound on the storage size needed
to describe a subaggregate.
• E.g., median(), mode(), rank()
 Three Data Warehouse Models
• Enterprise warehouse
– collects all of the information about subjects spanning the
entire organization
• Data Mart
– a subset of corporate-wide data that is of value to a specific
groups of users. Its scope is confined to specific, selected
groups, such as marketing data mart
• Independent vs. dependent (directly from warehouse) data mart
• Virtual warehouse
– A set of views over operational databases
– Only some of the possible summary views may be
materialized
 Multidimensional Data

• Sales volume as a function of product, month,

and region Dimensions: Product, Location, Time
Hierarchical summarization paths
on
gi

Industry Region Year

Re

Category Country Quarter

Product

Product City Month Week

Office Day

Month
 A Sample Data Cube
Date Total annual sales
1Qtr 2Qtr 3Qtr 4Qtr sum of TVs in U.S.A.
t

TV
uc
od

PC U.S.A
Pr

VCR
sum

Country
Canada

Mexico

sum
Cuboids Corresponding to the Cube

all
0-D (apex) cuboid
product date country
1-D cuboids

product,date product,country date, country

2-D cuboids

3-D (base) cuboid

product, date, country
 Typical OLAP Operations
• Roll up (drill-up): summarize data
– by climbing up hierarchy or by dimension reduction
• Drill down (roll down): reverse of roll-up
– from higher level summary to lower level summary or detailed
data, or introducing new dimensions
• Slice and dice: project and select
• Pivot (rotate):
– reorient the cube, visualization, 3D to series of 2D planes
• Other operations
– drill across: involving (across) more than one fact table
– drill through: through the bottom level of the cube to its back-
end relational tables (using SQL)
OLAP Operations
Example of Roll-up/drill-up operation
Drill-down on location from countries to cities
The slice operation

For example, if we want to make a select where Medal = 5

The dice operation defines a sub-cube by performing a selection on two or

more dimensions.

For example, if we want to make a select where Medal = 3 or Location = New

York
Pivot is also known as rotate.It Rotates the data axis to view the
data from different perspectives.
 Design of Data Warehouse
A Business Analysis Framework
• Four views regarding the design of a data warehouse
– Top-down view
• allows selection of the relevant information necessary for the data
warehouse
– Data source view
• exposes the information being captured, stored, and managed by
operational systems
– Data warehouse view
• consists of fact tables and dimension tables
– Business query view
• sees the perspectives of data in the warehouse from the view of
end-user
 Data Warehouse Design Process
• Top-down, bottom-up approaches or a combination of both
– Top-down: Starts with overall design and planning (mature)
– Bottom-up: Starts with experiments and prototypes (rapid)
• From software engineering point of view
– Waterfall: structured and systematic analysis at each step before
proceeding to the next
– Spiral: rapid generation of increasingly functional systems, short
turn
around time, quick turn around
• Typical data warehouse design process
– Choose a business process to model, e.g., orders, invoices, etc.
– Choose the grain (atomic level of data) of the business
process,data to be represented in fact table.
– Choose the dimensions that will apply to each fact table record
– Choose the measure that will populate each fact table record
A three-tier data warehousing architecture
 Three Data Warehouse Models
• Enterprise warehouse
– collects all of the information about subjects spanning the
entire organization
– It typically contains detailed data as well as summarized
data, and can range in size from a few gigabytes to
hundreds of gigabytes, terabytes, or beyond.
– An enterprise data warehouse may be implemented on
traditional mainframes, computer superservers, or
parallel architecture platforms.
– It requires extensive business modeling and may take
years to design and build.
 Three Data Warehouse Models
• Data Mart
– a subset of corporate-wide data that is of value to a specific
groups of users.Its scope is confined to specific, selected groups,
such as marketing data mart may confine its subjects to customer,
item, and sales.
– Data marts are usually implemented on low-cost departmental
servers that are UNIX/LINUX- or Windows-based.
– The implementation cycle of a data mart is more likely to be
measured in weeks rather than months or years.
– Independent data marts are sourced from data captured from one
or more operational systems or external information providers, or
from data generated locally within a particular department or
geographic area.
– Dependent data marts are sourced directly from enterprise data
warehouses.
 Three Data Warehouse Models

• Virtual warehouse
– A set of views over operational databases
– Only some of the possible summary views may be
materialized
– It is used to simplify decision-making in business
management. It collects and displays business
data relating to a specific moment in time,
creating a snapshot of the condition of the
business at that moment. Virtual warehouses
often collect data from a wide variety of sources.
Data Warehouse Development
A Recommended Approach
 Metadata Repository
• Meta data is the data defining warehouse objects. It stores:
• Description of the structure of the data warehouse
– schema, view, dimensions, hierarchies, derived data defn, data mart
locations and contents
• Operational meta-data
– data lineage (history of migrated data and transformation path), currency
of data (active, archived, or purged), monitoring information (warehouse
usage statistics, error reports, audit trails)
• The algorithms used for summarization
• The mapping from operational environment to the data warehouse
• Data related to system performance
– warehouse schema, view and derived data definitions
• Business data
– business terms and definitions, ownership of data, charging policies
Extraction, Transformation, and Loading (ETL)

• Data extraction
– get data from multiple, heterogeneous, and external sources
• Data cleaning
– detect errors in the data and rectify them when possible
• Data transformation
– convert data from legacy or host format to warehouse format
• Load
– sort, summarize, consolidate, compute views, check integrity,
and build indicies and partitions
• Refresh
– propagate the updates from the data sources to the
warehouse
 OLAP Server Architectures
• Relational OLAP (ROLAP)
– Use relational or extended-relational DBMS to store and manage
warehouse data and OLAP middle ware
- highly scalable
– Include optimization of DBMS backend, implementation of aggregation
navigation logic, and additional tools and services to analyze large
volume of data.
– ROLAP tools store & analyze highly volatile and changeble data.
– Poor query performance
– Expertize should need to analyze.
Multidimensional OLAP (MOLAP)
– Sparse array-based multidimensional storage engine
– Fast indexing to pre-computed summarized data
 OLAP Server Architectures

– MOLAP are not capable of containing detailed data.

– Fast indexing to pre-computed summarized data
– Information retrieval is fast.
– Can perform complex computation.
• Hybrid OLAP (HOLAP) (e.g., Microsoft SQLServer)
– Flexibility, e.g., low level: relational, high-level: array
– HOLAP benefits the greater scalability of ROLAP and faster computation
of MOLAP.
• Specialized SQL servers (e.g., Redbricks)
– Specialized support for SQL queries over star/snowflake schemas
Data Warehouse Implementation
Data warehouse is represented by data cubeThe following
things wemust consider to implement data warehouse.
1. Efficient Computation of Data Cubes
2. Access methods
3. Query processing techniques.

Efficient Data Cube Computation

define cube sales cube [city, item, year]: sum(sales in dollars)

For a cube with n dimensions, there are a total of 2n cuboids, including
the base cuboid.
A statement such as compute cube sales cube
Data Warehouse Implementation
Efficient Data Cube Computation
• Data cube can be viewed as a lattice of cuboids
– The bottom-most cuboid is the base cuboid
– The top-most cuboid (apex) contains only one cell
– How many cuboids in an n-dimensional cube with L levels?
n
T   ( Li 1)
i 1
• Materialization of data cube
– Materialize every (cuboid) (full materialization), none (no
materialization), or some (partial materialization)
– Selection of which cuboids to materialize
• Based on size, sharing, access frequency, etc.
Indexing OLAP Data: Bitmap Index
• Index on a particular column
• Each value in the column has a bit vector: bit-op is fast
• The length of the bit vector: # of records in the base table
• The i-th bit is set if the i-th row of the base table has the value for the
indexed column
• not suitable for high cardinality domains
– A recent bit compression technique, Word-Aligned Hybrid (WAH), makes it
work for high cardinality domain as well [Wu, et al. TODS’06]
 From On-Line Analytical Processing (OLAP)
to On Line Analytical Mining (OLAM)

• Why online analytical mining?

– High quality of data in data warehouses
• DW contains integrated, consistent, cleaned data
– Available information processing structure surrounding
data warehouses
• ODBC, OLEDB, Web accessing, service facilities,
reporting and OLAP tools
– OLAP-based exploratory data analysis
• Mining with drilling, dicing, pivoting, etc.
– On-line selection of data mining functions
• Integration and swapping of multiple mining functions,
algorithms, and tasks
 Indexing OLAP Data: Join Indices
• Join index: JI(R-id, S-id) where R (R-id, …)  S (S-id,
…)
• Traditional indices map the values to a list of record
ids
– It materializes relational join in JI file and speeds
up relational join
• In data warehouses, join index relates the values of
the dimensions of a start schema to rows in the fact
table.
– E.g. fact table: Sales and two dimensions city and
product
• A join index on city maintains for each distinct
city a list of R-IDs of the tuples recording the
Sales in the city
– Join indices can span multiple dimensions
 The “Compute Cube” Operator
• Cube definition and computation in DMQL
define cube sales [item, city, year]: sum (sales_in_dollars)
compute cube sales
• Transform it into a SQL-like language (with a new operator cube by,
introduced by Gray et al.’96) ()
SELECT item, city, year, SUM (amount)
FROM SALES (city) (item) (year)

CUBE BY item, city, year

• Need compute the following Group-Bys
(city, item) (city, year) (item, year)
(date, product, customer),
(date,product),(date, customer), (product, customer),
(date), (product), (customer) (city, item, year)
()
 Data Warehouse Usage
• Three kinds of data warehouse applications
– Information processing
• supports querying, basic statistical analysis, and reporting using
crosstabs, tables, charts and graphs
– Analytical processing
• multidimensional analysis of data warehouse data
• supports basic OLAP operations, slice-dice, drilling, pivoting
– Data mining
• knowledge discovery from hidden patterns
• supports associations, constructing analytical models, performing
classification and prediction, and presenting the mining results using
visualization tools
MODULE– II

DATA MINING