UNIT 1 & 2 BIOLOGY

TOPIC 1
KK 1 & 2
CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

CHPT 1A, 1B, 1C, 1D, 2D 3B, 3C

 Unit 1 Biology Area of Study 1

HOw do cells function?

In this area of study students examine the structure and functioning of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, and how the plasma membrane contributes to survival by controlling the
movement of substances into and out of the cell. Students explore cellular growth, replacement and death. They become familiar with the key events and regulation of the cell
cycle and the processes for cell division, including disruptions to the cell cycle and deviant cell behaviour. Students consider the properties of stem cells and their role in
differentiation, specialisation and renewal of cells and tissues.

key knowledge
Cellular structure and function (KK1)
• cells as the basic structural feature of life on Earth, including the distinction between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
• surface area to volume ratio as an important factor in the limitations of cell size and the need for internal compartments (organelles) with specific cellular functions
• the structure and specialisation of plant and animal cell organelles for distinct functions, including chloroplasts and mitochondria
• the structure and function of the plasma membrane in the passage of water, hydrophilic and hydrophobic substances via osmosis, facilitated diffusion and active transport
introduction to Cells
& Cell Structure

Students will be able to:

• Identify and describe cells as living
organisms
• Distinguish between prokaryotic and
eukaryotic cells
• Recognise that within cells there are
compartmentalised membrane bound
regions with specific cellular functions
known as organelles
Glossary
biotic or abiotic ?
Cells can be classified as BIOTIC (LIVING) organisms based on the following criteria:

Why do we care about cells?

Cells are the building blocks of all life.

ABIOTIC means Cells feature prominently in all Units 1 - 4:

NON-LIVING.
In Unit 1 & 2:
Cells are BIOTIC! • Cells- types
• Contents and functionality
• Communication and transport between and within cells
• The cell cycle, growth, death and differentiation of cells
Say hi to Mrs Green...
• Information storage and processing
• More growth!
 mrs green...

Cells can be classified as BIOTIC (LIVING) organisms based on the following criteria:

M Movement - All living things move, even plants

R Respiration - Getting energy from food
S Sensitivity - Detecting changes in the surroundings

G Growth - All living things grow

R Reproduction - more of the same species
E Equilibrium - Maintaining a stable internal environment (homeostasis)
E Excretion - Removing waste
N Nutrition – Extracting nutrients from environment
REMEMBER CLASSIFICATION?
Introduction to cells…

Introduction to Cells - Video

CAMBRIDGE TASK

Read Exercise 1A (pg. 1 - 7)

Complete Exercise 1A Tasks:

• Check-in Qus - Set 1 (pg. 6)

• Use 1A Skills (pg. 7) to complete Section 1A Questions ALL (pg. 7)
Cell Theory
All organisms also function according to cell theory:

1. All living things are made up of cells

2. Cells are the smallest and most basic units of life
3. All cells come from pre-existing cells

The Wacky History of Cell Theory

Categorising cells PROKARYOTIC CELLS
There are many ways we categorise cells and organisms. These Prokaryote literally means ‘before
include: nucleus’
A cell without a nucleus or
• distinguishing between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
membrane-bound organelles.
• identifying organisms as unicellular or multicellular
e.g. bacteria
• classifying organisms and cells as animal or plant
EUKARYOTIC CELLS
Eukaryotic literally means "after
nucleus".
A cell that contains a nucleus and other
membrane- bound structures.
There are two types of eukaryotic cells
• Animal cells
• Plant cells

Prokaryotic Vs Eukaryotic Cells

PROKARYOTIC & EUKARYOTIC CELLS

Source: https://www.sciencefacts.net/prokaryotes-vs-eukaryotes.html
 PROKARYOTIC & EUKARYOTIC CELLS
prokaryote eukaryote (animal cell) eukaryote (plant cell)

less complex

more complex

source: https://ibguides.com/biology/notes/2.2-prokaryotic-cells/
https://ibguides.com/biology/notes/2.3-eukaryotic-cells/
UNICELLULAR & MULTICELLULAR ORGANISMS
 advantages disadvantages

The cell must do ALL of the functions

Cell division and reproduction is very to keep itself alive
rapid and simple

unicellular Vulnerable to the environment (all of

High surface area so nutrients can be the cell is exposed)
absorbed and wastes can be removed easily

Cells can specialise and modify their

Cell division and reproduction is more
overall structure to suit their specific
complex and requires more energy
function
multicellular
Transport systems are required to move
Less vulnerable to the environment (most
nutrients and wastes into/out of the
of the cells are not exposed)
body
CAMBRIDGE TASK

Read Exercise 1C (pg. 13 - 17)

Complete Exercise 1C Tasks:

• Check-in Qus - Set 2 (pg. 16)

• Use 1C Skills (pg. 16-17) to complete Section 1C Questions 1 - 5 (pg. 17)
ANIMAL & PLANT CELLS
Animal and Plant Cells have the following organelles:
Animal Cell
Nucleus
Endoplasmic Reticulum
Ribosomes**
Golgi Complex (Apparatus, Bodies)
Vesicles (Different types)
Cytoplasm / Cytosol
Plant Cell Mitochondria
Cell Membrane**

In addition, plant cells have the following organelles:

Cell Wall
Plastids
Chloroplast
Large Vacuole
Tonoplast
** NOTE: technically, ribosomes are NOT organelles as they are not membrane bound!
we will look at cell (plasma) membrane in more detail later in the unit also!
ANIMAL & PLANT CELLS

Animal Cell

Plant Cell

source: https://ibguides.com/biology/notes/2.3-eukaryotic-cells/
Nucleus
• information centre of the cell
• controls the production of proteins
• contains most of the Cell’s DNA
• surrounded by a double nuclear membrane to
isolate and protect DNA from the rest of the cell

Specific regions within the nucleus include:

Nucleolus:
• where ribosomes are formed (ribosomal RNA (rRNA))
Chromatin:
• contains DNA and proteins

Nuclear envelope:
• Outer membrane (joins the Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
• Inner membrane contains protein-lined nuclear pores
• Water soluble molecules can travel in and out through pores
Endoplasmic reticulum
Found where?
• in cytosol

Rough:
• Synthesises proteins (via ribosomes) during
translation
• modifies proteins during post-translational
modifications, folding, and sorting.

Smooth:
• Synthesises lipids including oils, phospholipids
source: https://byjus.com/question-answer/what-is-rough-and-smooth-
and steroids endoplasmic-recticulam-with-labeled-diagram/ and
adapted from:
https://medcell.org/histology/cell_lab/smooth_endoplasmic_reticulum_em.p
hp
Ribosome
Found where?
• in cytoplasm, free or bound to rough endoplasmic
reticulum

Molecule:
• Made up of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and protein
• Produced in the nucleolus
Function:
• Site of protein synthesis, specifically
TRANSLATION.

• NOT enclosed by a membrane, so

technically NOT an organelle.

sources: adapted from

https://byjus.com/question-answer/what-is-rough-and-smooth-endoplasmic-recticulam-with-labe
led-diagram/
golgi apparatus and golgi
vesicles
Found where?
• in cytoplasm

Other names and structure?

• golgi “complex” or golgi “body”
• Stack of flattened, membranous sacs (cisternae) that
are not connected to each other

Function:
• Sort, modify and package proteins
• Proteins are further modified and packaged into
secretory vesicles and are exported from the cell by
exocytosis
source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golgi_apparatus and adapted from https://www.mediastorehouse.com.au/science-photo-
library/golgi-apparatus-tem-c017-8234-9210771.html
protein synthesis
lysosome
Found where?
• Located free in the cytoplasm (animal cells)

Structure:
• Membrane-bound vesicle containing digestive
enzymes

Function:
• Breaks down cellular waste and toxins
cytoskeleton
Found where?
• Complex, dynamic network of interlinking
protein filaments present in the cytoplasm
of all cells.

Structure:
• Made of 3 types of filaments (shown)

Function:
• Acts as skeleton and muscle for a cell
• Provides shape and structure
• Helps move vesicles and organelles around
a cell
 Plant Cell
large vacuole

Found where?
• in cytoplasm of plant cells
(There many smaller, temporary vacuoles in
animal cells)
Structure:
• Bound by a membrane known as a tonoplast.

Function
• Storage of water, food, enzymes, wastes etc.
cell wall Plant Cell

Found where?
• Found in plant, fungi and bacterial cells
• Rigid, protective barrier that provides strength and
structure
• Located outside of the cell membrane
• in cytoplasm of plant cells
Plant Cell
Structure:
• Made of cellulose (plants), chitin (fungi) and
peptidoglycan (bacteria)

Function
X5000 magnification
• additional layer of protection on top of the cell
source: https://sciencing.com/cell-wall-definition-structure-function-with-diagram-13717284.html
membrane https://stileapp.com/au/library/publishers/stile/compilations/science-ngss/6065632a-b968-41c5-8ed2-bc6eb466b0a7/preview/33-
cells-under-the-microscope/tpwH
plastid Plant Cell

Found where?
• in cells of plants and algae.

Structure:
• Double-membrane bound organelles that often
contain pigments such as chlorophyll.

Function:
• Plastids are responsible for manufacturing and
storing of food. Pigments are used in
PHOTOSYNTHESIS.
An example of a plastid would be the
source: https://biologydictionary.net/plant-cell/

chloroplast.
CAMBRIDGE TASK

Read Exercise 1D (pg. 18 - 27)

Complete Exercise 1D Tasks:

• Check-in Qus - Set 1 (pg. 23)

• Use 1D Skills (pg. 25-26) to complete Section 1D Questions ALL (pg. 27)
MITOCHONDRIA
Found where?
• in cytoplasm

Structure:
• Bound by a double membrane; the inner layer is
folded to form partitions called cristae
• Mitochondria contain DNA (Mitochondrial DNA –
mtDNA)
Function
• Site of AEROBIC RESPIRATION, which produces
the chemical energy compound called ATP

Prokaryotes lack mitochondria

source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golgi_apparatus and adapted from https://www.mediastorehouse.com.au/science-photo-

library/golgi-apparatus-tem-c017-8234-9210771.html
Cellular Respiration
Cellular Respiration
You will also learn about
other enzymes and co-
enzymes involved in this
process during Unit 3 and
will apply what you have
learned to biofuel
production!

For now, familiarise yourself

with the structure of the
mitochondria and the
products of each cellular
respiration reaction.
Cellular Respiration
more detail

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W9mnyqqclUA&t=119s

cellular respiration overview Aerobic Cellular Respiration, Glycolysis, Prep Steps

but... stick to the vcaa atp numbers!!!

2, 2, 26 - 28 atp!

Aerobic Respiration II, Kreb’s Cycle and ETC

Chloroplast
Found where?
• in cytoplasm of cells of green plants
Structure:
• Bound by a double membrane;
• Contains the green pigment chlorophyll.
• Inside the chloroplasts are stacks of flattened sacs or thylakoids
which are stacked together as grana (plural for granum!)
• Like mitochondria, chloroplasts also have their own DNA
(chloroplast DNA – cpDNA)

Function
• Chlorophyll is located in the grana and this is where the light-
dependent stage of photosynthesis takes place
• The grana sit in a stroma fluid where the light-independent stage
of photosynthesis takes place
source: https://search.library.wisc.edu/digital/AHDTZ7JMHZ5VSU8C
https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/chloroplasts-diagram-structure-and-functions/
photosynthesis
You will learn about ways in which plants
have adapted to maximise photosynthetic
capabilities in different climates.

Familiarise yourself with the chemical

equation for photosynthesis.

Notice that carbon dioxide (CO2) is

instrumental to the Calvin Cycle? source: https://www.londongrow.com/blogs/grow-tips/what-is-photosynthesis-and-why-your-
plants-need-light

More on this later!

photosynthesis
more detail!

Light Dependent Stage

photosynthesis overview Light Independent Stage

question booklet

Applying skills and knowledge to exam style questions can be

tricky so we will go through a few questions during each topic.

You will need your Semester One Question Booklet 2024!

Complete Questions - ALL (pg. 1 - 5)

PRACtical:

Complete Prac 1: Build a Cell and Keyring

Cells in your
Semester One Logbook
PRACtical:

Complete Prac 2: Variegated Leaf

in your
Semester One Logbook
CAMBRIDGE TASK

Read Exercise 2D (pg. 67 - 81)

Complete Exercise 2D Tasks:

• Check-in Qus - Set 1 (pg. 69)

• Check-in Qus - Set 2 (pg. 72)
• Check-in Qus - Set 3 (pg. 73)
• Check-in Qus - Set 4 (pg. 74)
• Check-in Qus - Set 5 (pg. 77)
• Check-in Qus - Set 6 (pg. 78)
• Use 2D Skills (pg. 79-80) to complete Section 2D Questions ALL (pg. 80-81)
 Unit 1 Biology Area of Study 1

HOw do cells function?

In this area of study students examine the structure and functioning of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, and how the plasma membrane contributes to survival by controlling the
movement of substances into and out of the cell. Students explore cellular growth, replacement and death. They become familiar with the key events and regulation of the cell
cycle and the processes for cell division, including disruptions to the cell cycle and deviant cell behaviour. Students consider the properties of stem cells and their role in
differentiation, specialisation and renewal of cells and tissues.

key knowledge
The cell cycle and cell growth, death and differentiation (KK2)
• binary fission in prokaryotic cells
• the eukaryotic cell cycle, including the characteristics of each of the sub-phases of mitosis and cytokinesis in plant and animal cells
• apoptosis as a regulated process of programmed cell death
• disruption to the regulation of the cell cycle and malfunctions in apoptosis that may result in deviant cell behaviour: cancer and the characteristics of cancer cells
• properties of stem cells that allow for differentiation, specialisation and renewal of cells and tissues, including the concepts of pluripotency and totipotency.
 introduction to binary
fission, the Cell
cycle and mitosis

Students will be able to:

• Define cell replication (division) and explain the reason behind
the process
• Define binary fission and describe processes involved
• Name examples of cells that undergo binary fission
• Define cell cycle
• Describe the phases of the cell cycle including stages of mitosis
Glossary
introduction
Cell replication is critical for both eukaryotes and prokaryotes to survive. Its purposes include growth and
development, maintenance and repair, and reproduction.
preparing for cell replication
Before a cell divides, it must first copy (or replicate) its
entire DNA sequence, or genome.

This means that each resulting daughter cell ends up

with its own complete genome.

DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, is found in the:

• nucleus of eukaryotic cells as a linear, double helix
• cytosol of prokaryotic cells as a circular double
helix

Molecules of DNA are encased with a protein known as

histone to form tightly-packed chromosomes.

source: pg. 116 Cambridge Unit 1 & 2 Biology

dna structure
The sides, or backbone, of the double helix are
made up of alternating deoxyribose sugar
group and a phosphate group.

The 'rungs' of the ladder are made up of

nitrogenous bases and are found in specific
complementary pairs:
• This means that Adenine (A) ALWAYS
pairs with Thymine (T).
And
• Guanine (G) ALWAYS pairs with Cytosine nucleotide
(C)
a sugar, phosphate and nitrogenous base form a
monomer known as a nucleotide.

source: pg. 115 Cambridge Unit 1 & 2 Biology

dna replication
For those interested in HOW DNA is replicated, chat
with your teacher, watch the video and have a look at
the diagram below!

DNA Replication – 3D
prokaryotic cells
A few quick reminders...

• Prokaryotic cells do not contain a true

nucleus or membrane-bound organelles

• circular DNA is found in the form of a

nucleoid within the cytosol

• ribosomes are also found in the cytosol

so the prokaryote can express its own
proteins

e.g. bacteria such as Escherichia coli (E.

coli)
binary fission
• Prokaryotes reproduce rapidly via binary
fission (a type of asexual reproduction)

• Produces 2 genetically identical copies of a cell

• Occurs exponentially, meaning that after each

round of replication, the number of cells
doubles

• A colony of Escherichia coli (E. coli) bacteria

doubles in size every 20 minutes
Stages of binary fission
Stages of binary fission
Stages of binary fission
binary fission review

Binary Fission Bacteria - updated

CAMBRIDGE TASK

Read Exercise 3B (pg. 113 - 119)

Complete Exercise 3B Tasks:

• Check-in Qus - Set 1 (pg. 117)

• Check-in Qus - Set 2 (pg. 120)
the cell cycle
•There are three stages of the cell cycle (1. Interphase
•Interphase has three sub-phases (G1, S and G2)
•Mitosis has four sub-phases (prophase, metaphase, a
•Cytokinesis is not a part of mitosis

There are three stages of the eukaryotic cell cycle:

• Interphase – cellular growth and duplication of

chromosomes

• Mitosis – Division of the nucleus and has 4

phases: prophase, metaphase, anaphase and
telophase (PMAT)

• Cytokinesis – Division of the cytoplasm and

formation of 2 daughter cells
interphase
• First and longest stage of cell cycle

• During interphase the cell makes the DNA, proteins and

organelles needed for growth and replication

• DNA exists as long chromatin threads

• The three sub-phases of interphase are:

- G1 phase
- S phase
- G2 phase

• If cell replication is not required, the cell can enter the

G0 (resting) phase
interphase - G1
The cell grows by:

• Increasing the volume of its cytosol

• Synthesising the proteins for DNA
replication
• Replicating its organelles

At the end of the G1 phase, the cell either

proceeds to the S phase or exits the cell cycle
and enters the G0 phase
interphase - s phase
• The cell replicates its DNA turning 1
chromosome into 2 genetically identical
sister chromatids

• Sister chromatids are held together by a

centromere and regarded as a single
chromosome
interphase - s phase
In humans, our somatic (body) cells are diploid, meaning they contain two sets of paired chromosomes (as shown
below). As there are 23 chromosome pairs, each somatic cell will contain 2 x 23 = 46 chromosomes. After the S
phase, each somatic cell will still contain 46 chromosomes. Diploid cells are also referred as being ‘2n’ with the ‘n’
referring to the number of sets of chromosomes. Each organism has its own number of chromosomes in diploid
cells. For example, sheep have 54 chromosomes (2n = 54).
interphase - g2
The final stage of interphase where the cell
continues to grow and prepare for mitosis

Involves:
• Increasing the volume of the cytosol
• Synthesising the proteins in preparation for
mitosis
mitosis
The second stage of the cell cycle
involving the separation of the
replicated chromosomes into 2 new
nuclei

Consists of four sub-phases:

• prophase
• metaphase
• anaphase &
• telophase

(PMAT)
NOTE: Cytokinesis is NOT a phase of mitosis!
mitosis in detail
mitosis in detail
mitosis summary
Prophase (prepare)- chromosomes condense and become visible
Metaphase (middle)- chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell
Anaphase (away)- sister chromatids are separated and move away from each other
Telophase (two)- Nuclear membrane reforms around the 2 sets of chromosomes on either side of the cell
PRACtical:

Complete Prac 3: Observing Mitosis

in your
Semester One Logbook
cytokinesis
• Occurs AFTER mitosis
• The cytoplasm divides and the cells will separate into two daughter cells

in animals in plants
regulation of cell cycle
• The cell cycle has 3 checkpoints where the cell inspects for errors before proceeding to the next stage
• These occur at the end of G1 and G2 and during metaphase
• If any errors are detected, the cell can pause for repairs
• If the damage cannot be repaired, then the cell undergoes programmed cell death
regulation of cell cycle
cell cycle and mitosis summary
CAMBRIDGE TASK

Read Exercise 3B (pg. 113 - 119)

Read Exercise 3C (pg. 133 - 135)

Complete Exercise 3B Tasks:

• Check-in Qus - Set 3 (pg. 123)
• Check-in Qus - Set 4 (pg. 127)
• Check-in Qus - Set 1 (pg. 136)
• Use 3B Skills (pg. 128-129) to complete Section 3B Questions ALL
(pg. 130 - 131)
PRACtical:

Complete Prac 4: Cell cycle Video

in your
Semester One Logbook
Try this...

Compare and contrast each of the following:

prokaryote Vs eukaryote unicellular Vs multicellular animal cell Vs plant cell
mitochondria Vs chloroplast interphase Vs mitosis mitosis Vs binary fission
question booklet

Applying skills and knowledge to exam style questions can be

tricky so we will go through a few questions during each topic.

You will need your Semester One Question Booklet 2024!

Complete Questions - ALL (pg. 6 - 10)

ASSESSMENT

Complete

Consolidation Quiz 1
 Apoptosis –
programmed Cell
Death

Students will be able to:

• Define apoptosis as programmed cell death

• Compare and contrast intrinsic and extrinsic pathways
toward apoptosis
• Explain why too much or too little apoptosis can result in
deviant cell behaviours such as cancers or Alzheimer's
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nyNn1dD1NhM
Cell Death
Cells can be killed by many different factors:
apoptosis
A specific sequence of events that result in the ordered dismantling of the internal contents of a cell and
organised clearance.

Why does it happen:

To remove cells that are no longer needed
Eliminates cells:
 with damaged DNA or
membranes
 that are infected with a virus
 that are programmed to die
 that are old

Once apoptosis starts it CANNOT STOP!

Characteristics of Apoptosis
Think: A lot of cleaving, degradation and overall destruction.
Activation of caspases – caspases (molecular scissors) enter the nucleus (through the nuclear
pore) and cleave DNA. They also travel around the cell degrading intracellular proteins in the
cytoskeleton
Digestion of cell contents – from the caspases breaking down the organelles
Cell shrinks – the cell and nucleus shrink as intracellular material is broken down. This involves:
Degradation and cleavage of nuclear proteins  condensation of chromatin
Breakdown of proteins in cytosol
Breakdown and fragmentation of organelles
Membrane blebbing and breakage – as the cytoskeleton is
digested, the membrane warps and detaches from the cell
in membrane-enclosed vesicles known as apoptotic
bodies which contain the broken down intracellular Destruction is caused by enzymes called Caspases
which act as ‘molecular scissors’.
material
Organic components can be reused!
This is what it might look
like…
Apoptosis – the summary
Casp
ases
• Caspases cleave specific proteins in the cytoplasm or nucleus
activ
ated

Bleb
• Blebbing of cell membrane
bing

Apo
ptoti • Apoptotic bodies split off from blebbing sites
c
bodi
es

Apo • cell dies

ptosi
s
After apoptosis…

The clean-up crew then arrive

and digest the fragments of the
cell.
This process is called
‘phagocytosis’. It is NOT part of
apoptosis.
intrinsic and extrinsic pathways
Two pathways which both cause the activation of caspase enzymes.

Mitochondrial (intrinsic) pathway

Death receptor (extrinsic) pathway
intrinsic (mitochondrial) pathway
• Cell trauma, for example: unfixable DNA damage, radiation, toxin, viral infection, etc.
Cell
stress

Relea
• Mitochondria releases cytochrome C in response to stress stimuli
se of
Cytoc • Forms multi-protein complex known as the apoptosome
hrom
eC

• Apoptosome activates caspases

Caspa
ses
activa
• Caspases cleave specific proteins in the cytoplasm or nucleus
ted

• Blebbing of cell membrane

Blebb
ing

Apop • Apoptotic bodies split off from blebbing sites

totic
bodie
s

• cell dies
Apop
tosis
intrinsic (mitochondrial) pathway
EXtrinsic (DEATH LIGAND) pathway
Deat
• Death Ligand (signalling molecules/cytokines) binds to the death receptor located in the cell
h
Ligan
membrane.
d

Signa • Signal transduction involves a ‘cascade’ of chemical reactions that result in the activation of
l
trans caspases.
ducti
on

• Signal transduction activates caspases

Casp
ases
activ
• Caspases cleave specific proteins in the cytoplasm or nucleus
ated

• Blebbing of cell membrane

Bleb
bing

Apop • Apoptotic bodies split off from blebbing sites

totic
bodi
es

• cell dies
Apop
tosis
extrinsic (death ligand) pathway

Infected
cell
In summary…
What if apoptosis malfunctions?
Apoptosis is vital to the healthy functioning & development of eukaryotic organisms

However, apoptosis related malfunctions are the cause of deviant cell production and some of the most
deadly diseases

Remember the checkpoints:

G1 – inspects for DNA damage

G2 – confirms that DNA has correctly replicated in S phase
Metaphase – confirms that the spindle fibres have correctly attached to the centromeres of chromosomes

If errors are detected at any of these checkpoints, the cell should repair itself or undergo apoptosis.
Note that failure to initiate apoptosis is not always a result of errors occurring at these checkpoints.

Unfortunately, when the rate of apoptosis decreases too much, cell growth can increase exponentially,
resulting in the formation of tumours
 Tumours and cancers When apoptosis does not occur
as planned…
Two categories:

Benign – relatively slow growing masses that are generally enclosed within a capsule which prevents
the abnormal cells from separating and invading other parts of the body

Malignant – the cells of some benign tumours can mutate further and become malignant when they
gain the ability to invade nearby tissues and/or enter the bloodstream or lymphatic system. From
here, they can travel to other parts of the body and grow. *Cancerous due to their ability to migrate
from the primary tumour site and invade other tissues

What is cancer?
 What is the p53 protein?
The p53 protein is a regulatory protein found in somatic cells. Regulatory means that it can control
processes that take place within the cell.

During mitosis, p53 operates at the G1 and G2 sub-phase checkpoints. Here, p53 identifies damaged
DNA.

In healthy cells, the p53 protein levels are low and mitosis will continue as normal.

In damaged cells, the p53 protein levels increase so that:

- The cell cycle can be stopped
- Enzyme repair of the DNA can take place
- Apoptosis can be activated.
As p53 is a protein, it is expressed by a gene sequence in the DNA of the cell. If the DNA is damaged
at this gene, the p53 protein will also damaged and these processes cannot take place, resulting in
abnormal cell growth will occur.
Examples can be seen in skin cancers and breast cancers. For a cancer to develop, it must shut down
the activity of the p53 protein.
What is the p53 protein?
Characteristic of benign tumours and Description
malignant/cancer cells
Self-sufficiency Cells usually require chemical growth signals to initiate
replication. However, in tumour cells, they can replicate
without these signals by either producing their own signals
or by permanently activating cell growth and replication
pathways
Antigrowth deactivation Cell replication is initiated in tumour cells even when cell
replication is not required

Increased survival Apoptosis does not function correctly in tumour cells. They
are also capable of immortality, allowing them to divide
forever.
Note: tumour cells can still die due to the inability for blood
vessels to form in the centre of tumours
Blood supply formation Tumour cells can form new blood vessels when growing

Tissue invasion and metastasis When benign tumour cells become malignant/cancerous
they are capable of invading nearby tissues and migrating
to other parts of the body.
Metastasis = the migration of tumour cells from the
primary tumour site to distant parts of the body
When apoptosis occurs too
much…
CAMBRIDGE TASK

Read Exercise 3C (pg. 132 - 147)

Complete Exercise 3C Tasks:

• Check-in Qus - Set 1 (pg. 136)
• Check-in Qus - Set 2 (pg. 142)
• Check-in Qus - Set 3 (pg. 146)
• Use 3C Skills (pg. 146-147) to complete Section 3C Questions ALL
(pg. 148 - 149)
• Chpt 3 review (pg. 151 – 156) Qus. 4 – 14, 18 – 20, 23