Map Datums, Coordinate Systems and

projection
Main objectives:
• Reference surfaces.
-Topographical surface, Ellipsoidal surface, Geiod surface.
• Map Datums for horizontal coordinates and heights.
-Types, Geodetic datumes used in Ghana.
• Coordinate systems and Frameworks.
-Types of coordinate systems(ellipsoidal or geodetic coordinates,cartesian
coordinates, projected coordinates), coordinate conversion and
Transformation.
• Map projections
-Definition, properties or preserved features of map projections, Transverse
Mercator projection, Universal Transverse Mercator Projection.
• Scale Distortion and Analysis on Ghana’s Transverse Mercator Projection.
Reference surfaces for mapping
The Ellipsoid

To give the size and shape of the ellipsoid requires the semi
major radius a and the semi minor radius b
• Best model for the earth is a an ellipsoid also called spheroid
(sphere flattened at the two poles) for horizontal coordinate
definition.
• For purposes of height coordinates use a surface of equal gravity
potential called geoid.
• So we use a different surface, the ellipsoid for horizontal
coordinates and the geoid for height definitions.
• Treat the two separately and independently for now.
• These two parameters are related to two other parameters called the
Flattening (f) and the first eccentricity (e) or the second eccentricity
e’ by:
, ,
• Typical values of the parameters for the WGS84 ellipsoid are
a = 6378137.0 m b = 6356752.31 m
f = 1/298.26 and e = 0.0818187
• On ellipsoid, naturally the type of coordinates we can define are
latitudes and longitudes + (maybe ellipsoidal heights)
• Latitude is angle a perpendicular line through a point on the
surface makes with equatorial plane (see figure below).
• All points on surface that have same latitude value joined together
by a circle and also erroneously called latitude.
• Also angle between Meridian line through point on the surface
and the Meridian line passing through Greenwich is called the
longitude (see figure below).
• So each position is defined by
Local and global ellipsoids
• For local ellipsoids, the ellipsoid is chosen in such way that it best fits
the surface of the area of interest (the country)
• Therefore each country may use a different ellipsoid depending on
what best fits that country.
• In this way, each country would have a different definition of its
coordinates.
• Note that the latitude and longitude values measured for the same
point may differ if a different ellipsoid is used.
• Global ellipsoid is chosen so it is the best fitting for the whole
globe. Example of a global ellipsoid is the WGS72, and the WGS84
 A list of some local Ellipsoids
Name Semi-Major Axis -a Semi-Minor Axis - b 1/Flattening
(Km) (km)
Airy 6377.563 6356.257 299.32
Modified Airy 6377.340 6356.034 299.32
Australian National 6378.160 6356.775 298.25
Bessel 1841 6377.397 6356.079 299.15
Clarke 1866 6378.206 6356.584 294.98
Clarke 1880 6378.249 6356.516 293.46
Ghana War Office 6378.300 6356.752 296.00
Everest 6377.276 6356.075 300.80
Fischer 1960 6378.155 6356.773 298.30
Helmert 1906 6378.200 6356.818 298.30
Indonesian 1974 6378.160 6356.774 298.25
International 6378.388 6356.912 297.00
Krassovsky 6378.245 6356.863 298.30
South American 1969 6378.160 6356.774 298.25
WGS 72 6378.135 6356.751 298.26
GRS 80 6378.137 6356.752 298.257
WGS 84 6378.137 6356.752 298.257
• The WGS84 ellipsoid is defined for global mapping and GPS
equipment use it for the coordinates they give.
• If we use this, the advantage then is that We can represent any
point on the Earth’s surface as accurately as our measurement
techniques allow us.
 Map Datums
• Datums in the real sense of the word means, an accepted point
that have values defined for it from which the values of all other
points can be determined.
• This means the coordinates of all locations on the earth are based
on datums.
• Let us take geographic horizontal coordinates first.
• We first of all select an ellipsoid with defined a and f values for our
measurement.
• Then We selected the equator and gave it a value of 0 latitude so all
other angles are measured and based on it.
• Similarly for longitudes, we selected the Greenwich Meridian for 0 and
based on that we can measure all other longitude values.
• So if we were to define datum for this, we ought to give the Ellipsoid,
its parameters (a, f), the latitude of origin, the longitude of origin and
the values assigned to these!
• In practice we can have different datums leading to different
coordinates for the same points. Eg. If we change the ellipsoid, we
have a new datum definition.
 Datum Conversions/Coordinate Transformation
• Datum conversions are accomplished by various methods.
1. Simple three parameter conversion between latitude, longitude,
and height in different datums can be accomplished by
conversion through Earth-Centered, Earth Fixed XYZ Cartesian
coordinates in one reference datum and three origin offsets that
approximate differences in rotation, translation and scale.
Applying the 3 parameter shifts converts the Cartesian
XYZ based on WGS84 to War office XYZ and vice versa.
Then the Cartesian values can be converted back to
geodetic coordinates of the new ellipsoid.

X  X  X 
Y    Y   Y 
     
 Z  wgs 84 Z  (transformation  Z  waroffice.
parameters )
• 2. Generally, ellipsoid axis may not be necessarily
Three axis so three rotation parameters in addition to the 3 shift
parameters making 6 parameters in addition to a scale parameter
to account for distance reductions give 7 parameters.

• A complete datum conversion is based on seven parameter

transformations that include three translation parameters, three
rotation parameters and a scale parameter.
Therefore, addition to the shift DX, DY, DZ, we
include rotation RX, RY, RZ and scale S for the
complete datum transformation.

 X B   X A   x   S Rz  R y   X A 
 Y    Y        R S R   Y 
      
B A Y Z X  A 
 Z B   Z A   Z   RY  R X S   Z A 
 Coordinates Transformation
• The process of converting coordinates from one coordinate
system to another is called coordinate transformation.

• There are a number of ways of defining the relationship

between one reference system and another.

1. Direct transformation by grid-on-grid

Eg. Using the linear conformal similarity or the affine
transformations.
  X 1 , Y1   X , Y 

X  aX 1  bY1  c Y  bX 1  aY1  d similarity

X  aX 1  bY1  c Y   dX 1  eY1  f affine
• The above method is only suitable for coordinates
defined for small areas only.
• Again it would only work well if the two regions for
which these coordinates are defined are close together
else earth curvature would need to be considered.
 Projection B
Projection C
Projection A
• Usually we instead would define the transformation
between our local/National datum and WGS84.

• Then the WGS84 coordinates can then be an intermediary

in the transformation.

• The procedure generally is as below:

 TRANSFORMATION MODELS
Methods of defining the relationship between one
reference system and another
Stage 3 3 7 10

Stage 2 Stage 4

Equations

Stage 1 Stage 5
 Coordinate transformations stages.
• Stage 1: The projected coordinates are converted to
spherical coordinates based on the local ellipsoid.

• Stage 2: The geographic coordinates are changed to

Cartesian XYZ coordinates which we said are only used
internally.
• Stage 3: This is the stage where parameters are applied and they
convert the Cartesian XYZ coordinates based on the local
ellipsoid to a new set of Cartesian values based on WGS84
ellipsoid.
• Stage 4: The Cartesian coordinates based on WGS84 ellipsoid
are converted to geographic coordinates.

• Stage 5: Geographic coordinates are projected to UTM

coordinates.
• The stage where we put equations shows we can transform the
geographic coordinates directly using either molodensky
equation or multiple regression equation.

• the Standard Molodensky formulas can be used to

convert latitude, longitude, and ellipsoid height in
one datum to another datum if the Delta XYZ
constants for that conversion are available and
ECEF XYZ coordinates are not required.
 Coordinates Systems/frames
Coordinates are a conventional method of recording position in space
• Types of Coordintes Systems
-Ellipsoidal, geographic or geodetic Coordinates
-Cartesian Coordintes,
-Projected Coordinates
-Astronomical coordinates

Projected Coordinates
-Geodetic coordinates used in Ghana,
-Coordinate Conversions,
-Datum Transformation
Cartesian coordinates
• Cartesian coordinates are defined by three perpendicular axis
X,Y,Z which intersect at an origin point.

• The origin for Cartesian coordinate definition is fixed at the

centre of the ellipsoid.
• The z axis coincides with the polar axis of the earth with the X-Y
plane coinciding with the equatorial plane.

• The figure following illustrates the relation between Cartesian

and ellipsoidal coordinates.
 Ellipsoids, Geographic Coordinates And Cartesian Coordinates
• The WGS's and ITRF's were basically defined as
Cartesian XYZ systems.
• The Z-axis goes out the north pole.
• The X-Y plane is the equatorial plane.
• The positive X-axis defines the origin of longitude.
• This is called an Earth Centered, Earth Fixed, ECEF
coordinate system.
• We can convert the geodetic coordinates associated
with an ellipsoid into Cartesian coordinates with
respect to that same ellipsoid directly as below:
 Map Projection
• So why don’t we just use the WGS84 ellipsoid + geographic
coordinates for all our mapping?
1. We will encounter complex and time-consuming arithmetic
calculations in determining the distance between two points.
2. Similarly calculating for bearings from geographic coordinates not
straight-forward and also forward and back bearings don’t differ by
180 degrees.
3. Latitude-longitude numbers plotted directly on paper would result in
greatly distorted figures.
4. Equipment available earlier were those that allowed us to measure
linear distances and angles/bearings but not coordinates directly.
5. We would always draw results on flat paper not on a globe and we
can not use spherical coordinates for that representation.
• The Way out is to use projected coordinates?
• The earth is round but maps are flat.
• Getting information from a curved surface to a flat one
involves a mathematical formula called a projection
formula.
• The Resulting coordinates which are now defined for a
plane surface are called projected coordinates.
• Advantages of using projected coordinates.
– Calculations of distances between points are trivially done.
– Coordinates are designed for plane surface so can be drawn without distortion,
– Graphic representations are realistic, provided the area covered is not too large.
• Disadvantages of a projected coordinate system
– All projections introduce errors.
– Depending on the projection, these errors are in distances, sizes, shapes, or
directions.
– Converting or transforming from one projected coordinate system to another is
not straight forward but would introduce errors because axis may not be aligned
to each other.
• Projected coordinates are given as Easting and Northings.

• Sometimes we represent them as X and Y values but this

must be differentiated strictly from Cartesian coordinates
which are used only internally i.e. not for coordinate
displays.
• We therefore discuss Map projections.
 Map Projection
• Definition, properties or preserved features of map projection
• Transverse Mercator Projection
• Universal Transverse Mercator projection
• Scale Distortion and Analysis on Ghana’s Transverse projection.
 Definition & Properties of Map Projection
• As stated earlier, projection occurs when a Map projection
equation is used to convert geodetic coordinates to equivalent
plane coordinates used on maps.
• the map attempts to represent features measured on the curved
surface of the Earth on a plane paper using Map coordinates.
• Map coordinates use a 2-D Cartesian-like system
in which the two axes are known as northings
(latitudes) and eastings (departures).
• The origin of the system is not at the center of the
earth but at a chosen point (false origin) on the
surface.
 Propertie
• The type of map projection used in Ghana for mapping is the
Transverse Mercator projection.

• The formulae for the Transverse Mercator projection are:

• Let us narrow this down now to the different projected coordinates
used in Ghana at present!!
Different projected coordinates in Ghana.
1. National projected grid coordinates based on Ghana War office
ellipsoid.
2. National projected grid coordinates based on Clarke 1880
ellipsoid (erroneously called severally as Ghana meter grid or
legion datum.)
3. Local grids (eg. Old Town surveys, mine grids) which are
arbitrarily selected.
 4. Universal Transverse Mercator coordinates.
5. The New Proposed Ghana National Grid based on
WGS84 ellipsoid.
• All these are assumed on Transverse Mercator
projection!!!
 1. Coordinates based on Ghana War office often called Ghana TM or Accra
Datum.
• Ellipsoid Ghana War Office.
• Parameters of the ellipsoid :
– a=6378299.996 m.
– b=6356751.69 m.
– inverse flattening 296
– feet to meter conversion factor = .304799706846.
• Origin of coordinates is the intersection of latitude 4
degrees 40 minutes North and longitude 1 degree west.
• Origin values Northing =0.00 m., Easting = 274319.74m.
• To avoid undue distortion at the eastern and western
edges, true distance along the central meridian is
decreased by 0.99975.
• Coordinates of all other places obtained from this origin.
2. Ghana meter grid or legion datum
•Ellipsoid Clarke 1880.
•Parameters of the ellipsoid :
– a=6,378,249.1 m.
– b=6,356,514.9 m.
– inverse flattening 293.4660167
– Origin of coordinates is the intersection of latitude 4 degrees 40
minutes North and longitude 1 degree west.
•False origin values Northing =0.00 m., Easting = 274319.74m.
•To avoid undue distortion at the eastern and western edges, true distance
along the central meridian is decreased by 0.99975.
•Coordinates of all other places obtained from this origin.
3. Local grids arbitrarily selected.

• Most Town surveys used to be based on Local

Frameworks determined and executed to fit the whole
town.
• The coordinates selected usually for the centre point
and used as origin would be perhaps (1000mN,
1000mE)
• Transformation between such local and National
coordinates often used 2D affine transforms.
• These were sufficient because they cover limited
regions of within 100km2, and at least some two
pillars have to be in addition National coordinates.
4. Universal Transverse Mercator Datum.
• Ellipsoid WGS84.
• Parameters of the ellipsoid :
– a= 6378137.000 m.
– b=6356752.314 m.
–inverse flattening 298.257223563
–Origin of coordinates is the intersection of Equator latitude 0 degrees and the
zone central Meridian.
–Globe divided into zones each of 6 degrees wide and starting from 180 degrees
west (-180 to-174 =zone 1, Cm=-177 etc. zone 30 = -6 degree to 0, CM = -3).
• The origin is given values of Northing =0.00 m. in
Northing hemisphere,
• Easting on zone central meridian= 500000m.
• Scale along central meridian = 0.9996.
• Coordinates of all other places obtained from this origin.
• Coordinates always in meters and dependent on zone
number in addition to ellipsoid.
 New Proposed Ghana National Grid to be based on WGS84 ellipsoid
•Ellipsoid WGS84.
•Parameters of the ellipsoid :
– a= 6378137.000 m.
– b=6356752.314 m.
–inverse flattening 298.257223563
–Origin of coordinates is the intersection of Equator latitude 0 degrees and
longitude 1 degree west.
–False Northing=0.000m, False Easting=400000m.
–Scale factor = 0.99975