CHAPTER 4

LECTURE
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Cell Structure
Chapter 4
 Cells
• Cells were discovered in 1665 by Robert
Hooke
• Early studies of cells were conducted by
– Mathias Schleiden (1838)
– Theodor Schwann (1839)

• Schleiden and Schwann proposed the Cell

Theory
3
 Cell Theory
1. All organisms are composed of cells
2. Cells are the smallest living things
3. Cells arise only from pre-existing cells

• All cells today represent a continuous line

of descent from the first living cells

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 Cell size is limited
• Most cells are relatively small due reliance
on diffusion of substances in and out of
cells
• Rate of diffusion affected by
– Surface area available
– Temperature
– Concentration gradient
– Distance

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 Surface area-to-volume ratio
• Organism made of many small cells has
an advantage over an organism composed
of fewer, larger cells
• As a cell’s size increases, its volume
increases much more rapidly than its
surface area
• Some cells overcome limitation by being
long and skinny – like neurons
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 Microscopes
• Not many cells are visible to the naked
eye
– Most are less than 50 μm in diameter
• Resolution – minimum distance two points
can be apart and still be distinguished as
two separate points
– Objects must be 100 μm apart for naked eye
to resolve them as two objects rather than
one
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 2 types
• Light microscopes
– Use magnifying lenses with visible light
– Resolve structures that are 200 nm apart
– Limit to resolution using light
• Electron microscopes
– Use beam of electrons
– Resolve structures that are 0.2 nm apart

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• Electron
microscopes
– Transmission
electron
microscopes
transmit electrons
through the
material
– Scanning electron
microscopes beam
electrons onto the
specimen surface
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 Basic structural similarities
1. Nucleoid or nucleus where DNA is located
2. Cytoplasm
– Semifluid matrix of organelles (macromolecular
structure in the cytoplasm specialized for a particular
function) and cytosol (the part of the cytoplasm that
contains organic molecules and ions in solution)
3. Ribosomes
– Synthesize proteins
4. Plasma membrane
– Phospholipid bilayer
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 Prokaryotic Cells
• Simplest organisms
• Lack a membrane-bound nucleus
– DNA is present in the nucleoid
• Cell wall outside of plasma membrane
• Do contain ribosomes (not membrane-bound
organelles)
• Two domains of prokaryotes
– Archaea
– Bacteria
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 Bacterial cell walls
• Most bacterial cells are encased by a strong cell
wall
– composed of peptidoglycan
– Cell walls of plants, fungi, and most protists different
• Protect the cell, maintain its shape, and prevent
excessive uptake or loss of water
• Susceptibility of bacteria to antibiotics often
depends on the structure of their cell walls
• Archaea lack peptidoglycan (includes
polysaccharides and proteins)

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 Flagella
• Present in some prokaryotic cells
– May be one or more or none
• Used for locomotion
• Rotary motion propels the cell

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a.Vibrio cholerae b. Bacteria flagellum. The motor proteins powered. c. Spiral wave created as the
by a proton gradient flagellum rotates 16
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 Eukaryotic Cells
• Possess a membrane-bound nucleus
• More complex than prokaryotic cells
• Hallmark is compartmentalization
– Achieved through use of membrane-bound
organelles and endomembrane system
• Possess a cytoskeleton for support and to
maintain cellular structure

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 Nucleus
• Repository of the genetic information
• Most eukaryotic cells possess a single nucleus
• Nucleolus – region where ribosomal RNA
synthesis takes place
• Nuclear envelope
– 2 phospholipid bilayers
– Nuclear pores – control passage in and out
• In eukaryotes, the DNA is divided into multiple
linear chromosomes
– Chromatin is chromosomes plus protein
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 Ribosomes
• Cell’s protein synthesis machinery
• Found in all cell types in all 3 domains
• Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)-protein complex
• Protein synthesis also requires messenger
RNA (mRNA) and transfer RNA (tRNA)
• Ribosomes may be free in cytoplasm or
associated with internal membranes

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 Endomembrane System
• Series of membranes throughout the
cytoplasm
• Divides cell into compartments where
different cellular functions occur
• One of the fundamental distinctions
between eukaryotes and prokaryotes

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 Endoplasmic reticulum
• Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)
– Attachment of ribosomes to the membrane gives a
rough appearance
– Synthesis of proteins to be secreted, sent to
lysosomes or plasma membrane
• Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)
– Relatively few bound ribosomes
– Variety of functions – synthesis, store Ca2+ ,
detoxification
• Ratio of RER to SER depends on cell’s function
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 Golgi apparatus
• Flattened stacks of interconnected
membranes (Golgi bodies)
• Functions in packaging and distribution of
molecules synthesized at one location and
used at another within the cell or even
outside of it
• Cis and trans faces
• Vesicles transport molecules to destination
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 Lysosomes
• Membrane-bounded digestive vesicles
• Arise from Golgi apparatus
• Enzymes catalyze breakdown of
macromolecules
• Destroy cells or foreign matter that the cell
has engulfed by phagocytosis

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 Microbodies
• Variety of enzyme-
bearing, membrane-
enclosed vesicles
• Peroxisomes
– Contain enzymes
involved in the
oxidation of fatty acids
– H2O2 produced as by-
product – rendered
harmless by catalase

32
 Vacuoles
• Membrane-bounded structures in plants
• Various functions depending on the cell
type

• There are different types of vacuoles:

– Central vacuole in plant cells
– Contractile vacuole of some protists
– Storage vacuoles

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 Mitochondria
• Found in all types of eukaryotic cells
• Bound by membranes
– Outer membrane
– Intermembrane space
– Inner membrane has cristae
– Matrix
• On the surface of the inner membrane, and also
embedded within it, are proteins that carry out
oxidative metabolism
• Have their own DNA
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 Chloroplasts
• Organelles present in cells of plants and
some other eukaryotes
• Contain chlorophyll for photosynthesis
• Surrounded by 2 membranes
• Thylakoids are membranous sacs within
the inner membrane
– Grana are stacks of thylakoids
• Have their own DNA
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 Endosymbiosis
• Proposes that some of today’s eukaryotic
organelles evolved by a symbiosis arising
between two cells that were each free-
living
• One cell, a prokaryote, was engulfed by
and became part of another cell, which
was the precursor of modern eukaryotes
• Mitochondria and chloroplasts

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Possible origins of eukaryotic cells. Both
mitochondria and chloroplasts are thought to
have arisen by endosymbiosis where a free
living cell is taken up but not digested.
The engulfing cell (top) is an archaeon that gave
rise to the nuclear genome and cytoplasmic
content.
The engulfing cell (bottom) consists of a nucleous
derived from an archaeon in a bacterial cell.
This could arise by a fusion event or by
engulfment of the archaeon by the bacterium.

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 Cytoskeleton
• Network of protein fibers found in all
eukaryotic cells
– Supports the shape of the cell
– Keeps organelles in fixed locations
• Dynamic system – constantly forming and
disassembling

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 3 types of fibers
• Microfilaments (actin filaments)
– Two protein chains loosely twined together
– Movements like contraction, crawling, “pinching”
• Microtubules
– Largest of the cytoskeletal elements
– Dimers of α- and β-tubulin subunits
– Facilitate movement of cell and materials within cell
• Intermediate filaments
– Between the size of actin filaments and microtubules
– Very stable – usually not broken down
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 Centrosomes
• Region surrounding centrioles in almost all
animal cells
• Microtubule-organizing center
– Can nucleate the assembly of microtubules
• Animal cells and most protists have centrioles –
pair of organelles
• Plants and fungi lack centrioles
• The centrosome is also responsible for the re-
organization of microtubules that occur during
cell division
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 Cell Movement
• Essentially all cell motion is tied to the
movement of actin filaments, microtubules,
or both
• Some cells crawl using actin microfilaments
• Flagella and cilia have 9 + 2 arrangement
of microtubules
– Not like prokaryotic flagella
– Cilia are shorter and more numerous

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• Eukaryotic cell
walls
– Plants, fungi, and
many protists
– Different from
prokaryote
– Plants and protists
– cellulose
– Fungi – chitin
– Plants – primary
and secondary cell
walls
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 Extracellular matrix (ECM)
• Animal cells lack cell walls
• Secrete an elaborate mixture of
glycoproteins into the space around them
• Collagen may be abundant
• Form a protective layer over the cell
surface
• Integrins link ECM to cell’s cytoskeleton
– Influence cell behavior
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 Cell-to-cell interactions
• Surface proteins give cells identity
– Cells make contact, “read” each other, and
react
– Glycolipids – most tissue-specific cell surface
markers
– MHC proteins – recognition of “self” and
“nonself” cells by the immune system

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 Cell connections
• 3 categories based on function
1. Tight junction
– Connect the plasma membranes of adjacent cells in a
sheet – no leakage
2. Anchoring junction
– Mechanically attaches cytoskeletons of neighboring
cells (desmosomes)
3. Communicating junction
– Chemical or electrical signal passes directly from one
cell to an adjacent one (gap junction, plasmodesmata)
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