CELLS

-Animal and plant cells

-Bacterial cells
-Specialised cells
-Sizes of specimen

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Learning Outcomes
Find out about the structure of the cells of animals,plants and bacteria
Learn about the functions of each of the parts of these cells
Describe how the structures of some specialised cells are related to
their functions
Practise using the magnification equation.

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Cells from deep time-Discussion questions

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Cells from deep time-Discussion questions

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Cell
• The smallest structural and functional
unit of an organism is called a cell.

Longitudinal section through the tip of a plant shoot

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 Cell
• All organisms are made of cells.
• Cells are very small,so large organisms contain millions of cells.They are
multicellular.
• Some organisms are unicellular,they are made up of just a single cell.
• Bacteria and yeast are examples of single celled organisms.

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 Microscopes
• To see cells clearly, you need to use a microscope.
• The kind of microscope used in a school lab is
called light microscope.
• This is because it shines light through the piece of
animal or plant you are looking at.
• It uses glass lenses to magnify and focus the
image.
• A very good light microscope can magnify about
1500 times so that nearly all the structures about
cell can be seen.

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 Microscopes
• A photograph taken using a light microscope is called a
photomicrograph.(These are cells from trachea of a mammal)

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 Photomicrograph of moss(yosun) plant.You cannot see the cell
membrane because they are pressed tightly against the inside of
the cell walls.

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 Microscopes
• To see smaller things inside a cell, an electron
microscope is used.

• A picture taken with an electron microscope is

called an electron micrograph.

• It uses a beam of electrons instead of light

and can magnify things up to 500 000 times
which means a lot more detail can be seen
inside a cell.

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 Electron micrograph from maize(mısır) plant.
EM don’t provide images that show the colours of the different parts.Colors is added
afterwards.

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Cell Structure
Cell Structure
Cell membrane
-enclosing the cells

Nucleus
-control the cells with
DNA
Organelles
-They have particular
functions.

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Cell membrane
• Forms a boundary between the cytoplasm and the outside of
the cell.

• Cell membrane is a very thin layer of protein and fat.

• Holds the cell together.

• It is permeable to some substances but not to others (partially

permeable), so controls the movement of substances in and
out of the cell.

• It is difficult to see the cell membrane in a plant cell,because it

is pressed tightly against the inside of the cell wall.

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Nucleus • The nucleus(plural:nuclei) is the largest organelle in
the cell and is considered to be the cell's control
center.

• Most eukaryotic cells contain just a single nucleus,

but some types of cells, such as red blood cells,
contain no nucleus. A few other types of cells, such
as muscle cells, contain multiple nuclei.

• The nucleus is surrounded by a double membrane,

known as the nuclear envelope, with nuclear pores.

• Nuclear pores allow and control the exchange

between the nucleus and the cytoplasm.

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 Nucleus
• In the nucleus,genetic information is kept on the chromosome,which are inherited
from the organism’s parents.

• Within the nucleus, the chromosomes are in a loosely coiled state known as
chromatin.

• Chromosomes are made up of DNA, which is organised into functional units called
genes.

• Genes control the activities of the cell and inheritance; thus the nucleus controls
cell’s activities.

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 Nucleus
• When existing cells divide, new cells are produced.

• The nucleus controls cell division.

• Chromosomes can be seen most easily at the time when the cell is dividing.

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 NOTE
• Chromosomes are very long,but so thin that they cannot easily be seen even using an electron
microscope.However, when the cell is dividing,they become short and thick,and can be seen with a
good light microscope.(Figure photomicrograph shows some plant cells dividing.Spider
legs=chromosomes.)

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Cytoplasm

• The material between the nucleus and the cell

membrane is known as cytoplasm.

• Cytoplasm is an aqueous (watery) material,

varying from a fluid to a jelly-like consistency.

• Cytoplasm water content is about 70 % in

many cells.

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 Cytoplasm
• It contains many substances dissolved in
it,especially proteins.

• Many different metabolic reactions take

place in the cytoplasm.

• May contain organelles. An organelle can

be defined as a functionally and
structually distinct part of a cell.
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Animal cell vs Plant cell

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Ribosomes
• Ribosomes are tiny structures
found in almost all animal cells
and plant cells.

• They are so small that we can only

see them with an electron
microscope.

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Ribosomes
• Ribosomes can be referred as the
protein factories of the cell, they
carry out protein synthesis.

• The instructions on the DNA

molecules are used to link
together long chains of amino
acids in a particular sequence.

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Mitochondria
• Mitochondria are often called the powerhouses
or energy factories of a cell because they are
responsible for releasing energy from food
substances through the process of aerobic
respiration.

• Mitochondria are oval-shaped, double-

membrane organelles that have their own
ribosomes and DNA.

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Mitochondria
• The inner layer has folds called
cristae, which increase the surface
area of the inner membrane.

• The area surrounded by the folds is

called the mitochondrial matrix.

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Mitochondria
• Cells with a high demand of energy contain large
numbers of mitochondria (muscle and liver cells).

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 NOTE
• Cell membrane,cell wall,cytoplasm,vacuoles,nucleus and chloroplasts can be seen
with good light microscope.But there are smaller structures inside cells that we
cannot see clearly unless we use and electron microscope.These include
mitochondria (singular:mitochondrion) and ribosome.

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Cell Wall
• Rigid covering outside the membrane that
protects the cell, provides structural support,
and gives shape to the cell.

• Made from cellulose.

• It prevents the plant cell from bursting when

it absorbs a lot of water.

• It is non-living and allows water and dissolved

substances to pass through it. The cell wall is
not selective like the cell membrane.
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 Cell Wall
• All plants cells are surrounded by a cell wall made mainly of
cellulose.
• Paper,which is made from cell walls,is also made of cellulose.
• Animal cells never have cell walls.
• Cellulose belongs to a group of substances called
polysaccharides.
• Cellulose forms fibres which criss-cross over one another to
form a very strong covering to the cell.This help to protect
and support the cell.
• If the cell absorbs a lot of water and swells,the cell wall stops
it bursting.

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 This electron micrograph of a plant cell wall was taken with a kind of
electron microscope that shows surfaces in three dimensions.You can see
fibres of cellulose criss-cross over one another.

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Vacuole
 A vacuole is a fluid-filled space a cell which
is surrounded by its own membrane.

 Plant cells have very large,permanent

vacuoles,which contain a solution of sugars
and other substances called cell sap.

 Helps to regulate osmotic properties of cell

(flow of water inwards and outwards).

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 Vacuole
• Helps to keep plant cells firm. The pressure
in the vacuole presses the cytoplasm against
the wall to keep the cell turgid.

• Animal cells may sometimes have small

vacuoles in their cytoplasm called vesicles
but they are usually produced to do a
particular job and are not permanent.

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Vacuole

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Chloroplast
• Contains chlorophyll, which is a green
pigment that absorbs light during the
process of photosynthesis.

• Chloroplasts are found in the green

parts of the plants, mainly in the leaves.

• Like mitochondria, they are surrounded

by two membranes.
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 Chloroplast
• Chloroplast are never found in animal cells.
• Chlorophyll absorbs energy from sunlight and this
energy is then used in making food for the plant by
photosynthesis.
• Chloroplasts often contain starch grains,which have
been made by photosynthesis.
• Animal cells never contain starch grain.
• Starch grains(tane) are tiny pieces of starch,made
of thousands of starch molecules,that are stored in
some plant cell.

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 This electron micrograph shows a chloroplast from a cell in a pea plant.The large blue
structure inside the chloroplast is a starch grain.The black stripes inside the chloroplast
are membranes where the chlorophyll is kept.

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Chloroplasts

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An electron micrograph showing the central part of an
animal cell.

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Bacterial cells
• Bacteria(singular:bacterium) are very
small organisms that are single cells.

• They can be seen only at high

magnification under a microscope.

• They have a cell wall made of

peptidoglycan (mixture of proteins, sugars
and fats).
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 Bacterial cells
• Bacterial cells always have a cell wall.Unlike plant cells,this cell wall is not made of
cellulose but function same.
• Cell wall helps to support the cell and stops it bursting if cells take up lots of water.
• A partially permeable membrane is tightly pressed against the cell wall.Control what
enters the cell.
• They do not have mitochondria or chloroplasts.
• Bacteria do not have nucleus.
• Bacterial cells also known as prokaryotic cells.

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 Bacterial cells
• Inside the cell wall is the cytoplasm, which may contain
granules (small particles) of glycogen, fat and other food
reserves.

• Large numbers of ribosomes float freely in the cytoplasm.

• Each bacterial cell contains a single chromosome made of a

circular strand of DNA called a bacterial chromosome.

• There are also smaller circular structures called plasmids, which

are also made of DNA.

• Plasmids can be used in the genetic modification of cells.

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Bacterial cells
• Bacteria can be different shapes: they
may be spherical, rod-shaped or
spiral.

• Some have filaments, called flagella,

projecting from them. The flagella can
flick and so move the bacterial cell
about.

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• Bacterium reproducing.

• This is asexual reproduction by

cell division.

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• At this electron microscope picture,colors added later.It shows a bacterium called
Enterococcus faecalis dividing into two.This is the way that bacteria reprude.

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Parts of a bacterial cell:

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Specialisation of Cells
Most cells, when they have finished dividing and growing, become
specialized and have specific functions.

When cells are specialized:

• they do one particular job
• they develop a distinct shape
• special kinds of chemical changes take place in their cytoplasm.

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Levels of Organisation

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Tissues
A tissue is a group of cells with
similar structures working
together to perform a shared
function.
EX: Layer of cells lining your stomach.These
cells make enzymes to help to digest your
food.

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• Cell lining the stomach-an example of an tissue.

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Tissues;specialised cells.

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 Organs

A group of different tissues

that carry out a function
together is called an organ.

EX:stomach,heart,kidney,lungs..
In plant; an onion bulb,leaf…

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Organ Systems
An organ system is a group of organs with
related functions working together to
perform a body function.

EX:
 The mouth,intestine and stomach are all
part of organ system.
 Heart-vein-artery-capillary = circulatory
system
 Kidney-urinary bladder = excretory
system

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Organisms
An organism is a living thing
that has an organised
structure, can react to stimuli,
reproduce, grow, adapt, and
maintain homeostasis.

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 Sizes of specimens
• Many of the structures that biologists study are very small.We can tell someone how
much bigger the image is than the actual object by giving its magnification.
• The magnification of an object is how many times larger it is than the real object.

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NOTE

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• For example,try measuring the length of the spider’s body.
• You should find that it is 40 mm long.
• The real spider was 8 mm long.

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 IMPORTANT POINTS
• Make sure that all the numbers in your calculation have the same
units.It is often a good idea to convert everything milimetres,mm,before
you do anything else.
• Magnification is always written with a multiplication sign in front of it,
x.Magnification does not have units.

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