Engineering

Thermodynamics
MIC-102

Alankrita Singh
Assistant Professor
Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering
Room No. 225, Phone: 5151
 Summary of Previous Class
• Property table
• Dryness fraction of wet steam
• Thermodynamic states during phase change of pure substance
• Enthalpy and entropy
• Mollier diagram
• Ideal and real gas equations
• Compressibility Factor
 First Law of Thermodynamics
• The First Law of Thermodynamics states that heat is a form of energy, and thermodynamic
processes are therefore subject to the principle of conservation of energy.

ideal gas
Compressible fluid real gas
(stored energy)
heat
vapour

Work (energy)

(reversible, irreversible process and anyPoint

compressible
function fluid)
Path function

Heat transfer/ heat interaction/ heat exchange

between system and surrounding
Question: For a cyclic process which one of the following holds true-
(a) Change in internal energy is zero
(b) Net work transfer = 0
(c) Net heat interaction = 0
(d) Change in internal energy, net work transfer and heat interaction is non-zero
• Internal Energy - It is the total of the kinetic energy due to the motion of
molecules and the potential energy associated with the vibrational motion and
electric energy of atoms within molecules. It also includes the energy in all the
chemical bonds.
• For ideal gas, internal energy depends on temperature only.
i.e., U = f(T)
• Specific heat at constant volume (: The quantity of heat required to raise the
temperature of unit mass of the gas by 1 degree when it is heated at constant
volume.
• Specific heat at constant pressure (): The quantity of heat required to raise the
temperature of unit mass of the gas by 1 degree, the pressure remaining constant
during heating.
• Cp is greater than the molar specific heat at constant volume Cv because energy
must now be supplied not only to raise the temperature (energy gets spent only to
increase the kinetic energy of gas molecules) of the gas but also for the gas to do
work because, in this case, volume changes.
• Specific heat ratio/ Laplace coefficient/ adiabatic index (=
• It is a measure of how much internal energy is getting converted to work in any
compression/expansion process.
• In other words it is an indicator of how much gas in adiabatic conditions with
dQ=0 can extract heat internally to do work. It is a measure of the work done
by the system.
• Every change in internal energy impacts entropy changes and brings
irreversibility in the process.
0<
• for monoatomic, Diatomic, triatomic is 1.67,1.4,1.33 respectively.
• Higher the DOF, smaller is the specific heat ratio.
 Quasi-static Work Done by a Closed System
Let us assume an expansion process where gas does differential amount
of work ‘W’ as it forces the piston to move by a differential amount ‘ds’.
W = F.ds
= PAds
= PdV
Net work done
= area under P-V curve
Note: This holds true only for reversible, quasi-static process for any
fluid in a closed system.

Compression 𝑉 2 <𝑉 1
𝑉
Expansion 2 >𝑉 1

is +ve is -ve
Question: For a quasi-static expansion process in a closed system which among the following
area under the curve represents net work done?

(a) (b)
 Specific Heat at Constant Volume
From first law of thermodynamics,
= +dU

We know, = PdV
For isochoric process, dV
𝜕=𝑄
0𝑃𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑈
= +
𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑇
0

(valid only for ideal gas)

 Specific Heat at Constant Pressure

= PdV
For isobaric process, P =constant

We know, H = U+PV

=
0

(valid only for ideal gas)

 Mayer’s Relation: Cp-Cv=R
V , P = constant
Fixed While heating, T
boundary dH=
= +dU
Piston is locked
= PdV +
1 mole 1 mole
Let us assume net change in For ideal gas, PV = RT
temperature ( is same for both cases 0
𝑇 𝑖 ,𝑉 𝑖 , 𝑃 𝑖 𝑇 𝑖 ,𝑉 𝑖 , 𝑃 𝑖 PdV + VdP = RdT

= RdT +

V = constant -
While heating, T and P
dU=
 Reversible Process by Ideal Gas
Find heat and work transfer for following process in closed system by ideal gas-
(a) Isobaric process (P = constant)
(b) Isochoric process (V =constant)
(c) Isothermal process (T = constant)
(d) Reversible adiabatic (P
(e) Polytropic process (P
Case 1: P = constant

=m+
(if is a function of ‘T’)

=
=
=
Case 2: V = constant
=
0

= m(
(if
dQ= dU
Case 3: T = constant

= = mRT
1

+m
0

W
Case 4: = constant For adiabatic process:
depends on nature of gas

( ) ( )
𝛾 −1 𝛾−
𝑇2 𝑃2 𝛾 𝑉1
= =
𝑇1 𝑃1 𝑉2
 Case 5: = constant
• Value of polytropic index (n): -∞ to ∞
• ‘n’ depends on process and it does not depend upon nature of gas.
• All process are polytropic with different values of ‘n’.
We know,
All process are polytropic with different values of ‘n’. V= constant (n= ∞)
P = constant (n =0)
T = constant (n=1)

n= - ∞
n<0
n= - ∞

P P n= +ve n= -ve
n= 0 n= 0

n=1 n= -ve n= +ve

n=
n>
n= ∞
n= ∞

V
V
 POINTS TO REMEMBER
• Value of polytropic index (n): -∞ to ∞
• ‘n’ depends on process and it does not depend upon nature of gas.
• All process are polytropic with different values of ‘n’.
• V= constant (n= ∞)
• P = constant (n =0)
• T = constant (n=1)
• for monoatomic gas (inert gases)= 1.66
• for diatomic gas (= 1.4
• for polyatomic gas (=1.33
• for air = 1.4
• Molecular weight of air = 29
• Universal gas constant (R)= 8.314 kJ/k-mol-K
• Characteristic gas constant = R/Mol. Weight
• Characteristic gas constant depends on nature and molecular weight of gas
Problem: In a piston cylinder assembly one mole of air is compressed from the
initial state of 300K, 1 bar till its volume reduces to one-fifth of its original volume
by a process given by-

Determine (a) pressure and temperature at end of compression

(b) Work and heat transfer during process in kJ/kg and kJ/k-mol
(c) Change in internal energy and enthalpy in kJ/k-mol and kJ/kg.
Also draw the P-V diagram for the above process.
Solution:
Problem:
Pin B
3
𝑉 =0.75 𝑚
piston Piston weight = 100 kN
Pin A Cross- sectional area of piston = 0.5

m = 2kg
Atmospheric pressure = 95 kPa

Initially piston rests on pin A. Now is heated slowly such a way that piston moves upto stop
B.
Determine: (a) amount of heat required to do so (in kJ)
(b) Work interaction in kJ
(c) Change of internal energy and enthalpy in kJ.
Also draw P-V diagram.
 Flow Process
(process in open system)
Steady flow Unsteady flow
(parameters will remain constant w.r.t time) (parameters will change w.r.t time)

heat
mass energy
work

Control volume
 Steady Flow Process
2

∫𝜕𝑊 surrounding
1 2

inlet ∫𝜕𝑄
𝑐1 𝐴1 pr
oc
1

es outlet
s
𝐴2 𝑐2
𝑧1
𝑧2 𝑃 2 , 𝑇 2 , 𝑠2 , 𝐻2 , 𝑣2 , 𝜌 2
𝑃 1 ,𝑇 1 , 𝑠1 , 𝐻 1 , 𝑣 1 , 𝜌 1 control volume

ref for PE (z=0)

SFEE for all process by open system

SFEE is also known as first law of thermodynamics for open system/ flow process
Question: Write SFEE for following control volume-

1 3
𝑚1, 𝑃 1, 𝑣1, 𝑧1, 𝜌 1

2
4
𝑚2, 𝑃 2, 𝑣2, 𝑧 2, 𝜌2 ,
W
Work Done for Open System and Reversible Process
 Reversible Process (Open System) by an Ideal Gas
Assumption: change in KE, Change in PE =0
Case 1: Polytropic Process = constant)
Question: For two reversible polytropic processes in an open and closed system
which of the following holds true-

1
6

5 2

4 3

(a) Area(1-2-3-4-1) = Area(1-2-5-6-1)

(b) Area(1-2-3-4-1)= n x Area(1-2-5-6-1)
(c) Area(1-2-5-6-1) = n x Area(1-2-3-4-1)
(d) No relation exists
 2
P
𝑊 1 − 2=− 𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑓 𝑃 2 > 𝑃 1
1
V

Case 2: Isobaric Process (P= constant)

=0
Case 3: Isochoric Process (V= constant)
 PV=mRT

Area (1-2-3-4-1) = Area (1-2-5-6-1)

TdS = dU + PdV for ideal gas only

TdS = dH –VdP
TdS = (for reversible process only)
 Flow Process Devices
• Boiler
: assumption

water Boiler steam

heat
• Condenser

Assumption:

𝑸 𝟏− 𝟐=𝒎 ( 𝒉𝟐 − 𝒉𝟏)
SFEE:
• Nozzle (to increase velocity)
A nozzle is a device that increases the velocity of a fluid at the expense
of pressure. 1

h 1 , 𝑐 1 , 𝑃 1 ,𝑚 h2, 𝑐2 , 𝑃2 , 𝑚

1
• Diffuser
A diffuser is a device that increases the pressure of a fluid
by slowing it down. 2
1

h 1 , 𝑐 1 , 𝑃 1 ,𝑚
h2, 𝑐2 , 𝑃2 , 𝑚
1
2
• Turbine (both steam and gas)
As the fluid passes through the turbine, work is done against the blades, which are attached
to the shaft. As a result, the shaft rotates, and the turbine produces work.

1 2

( ) ( )
𝟐 𝟐
𝒄𝟏 𝒈 𝒛𝟏 𝒄𝟐 𝒈 𝒛𝟐
𝒎 𝒉𝟏 + + +𝑸 𝟏 −𝟐=𝒎 𝒉𝟐+ + +𝑾 𝟏− 𝟐
𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
• Compressor/ Fan/ Blower/ Pump
Devices used to increase the pressure of a fluid. Work is supplied to these devices from an
external source through a rotating shaft.
• Heat Exchanger
 evaporator
Radiator
Boiler, condenser
Intercooler, air-preheater etc
Problem: Air at 327°C and 400 kPa with volume flow rate of 5 flows through a
turbine and exits at 100 kPa and 182°C. If expansion process is polytropic,
calculate power output, rate of heat transfer and rate of change of enthalpy and
internal energy. Draw P-V diagram.
• Problem: A turbo compressor delivers 2.33 air at 0.276 Mpa, 43°C. This air is
heated at this pressure in combustion chamber to 430 °C and then finally
expanded in a turbine which delivers 1860 kW. During expansion in turbine
0.09 MJ/s heat is transmitted to surrounding. Find the exit temperature of
turbine if change in potential energy and kinetic energy are neglected.
 Energy Analysis of Unsteady Flow Process
• Many processes of interest, involve changes within the control volume with time. Such
processes are called unsteady-flow, or transient-flow, processes.
• Most unsteady-flow processes can be represented reasonably well by the uniform-
flow process.
Uniform-flow process: The fluid flow at any inlet or exit is uniform and
steady, and thus the fluid properties do not change with time or position
over the cross section of an inlet or exit. If they do, they are averaged
and treated as constants for the entire process.

Example: Charging of a rigid tank from a supply line is an unsteady-flow

process since it involves changes within the control volume.
Mass Balance:

Energy Balance:
Net energy transfer by Change in internal, kinetic,
heat, work and mass potential etc energies

crossing boundaries

changing over time

if change in PE and KE are neglected
Question: Consider charging of an evacuated rigid tank by steam coming at 1MPa
and 300°C. Assume that the entire incoming steam goes to the rigid tank and
there is no net heat loss during the entire process. Also neglect change in KE and
PE. Determine the final temperature of steam if final pressure of evacuated tank
becomes 1MPa.
 Throttling Process
• Throttling is a real process
• Sudden expansion or sudden pressure drop
• Irreversible process (always)
• Sudden change in area
Throttling is a flow process such that fluid passes through suddenly reduced
area. For example- orifice
• Suddenly restricted area
• Throttling valves are any kind of flow-restricting devices that cause a significant
pressure drop in the fluid.
Question: Which among the following figures show throttling process-

𝑥→0
𝑥> 0
(d) (e)
• During throttling the pressure drop in the fluid is often accompanied by a large
drop in temperature, and for that reason throttling devices are commonly used
in refrigeration and air-conditioning applications.
1
2
(since it is just a passage)
1𝐴
1 ≫ 𝐴2
(since time is very short and heat transfer takes
time)

0 0

=
• According to first law of thermodynamics, the process should occur as long as
it is not violating conservation of energy, then it is the second law of
thermodynamics which explains that process can occur in a certain direction
only.
• That means energy has some quality, and the low quality energy can not be
converted into high-quality energy completely.