The River Basin

• Is the area tributary to given point on a stream and is separated from

adjacent basins by a divide or ridge that can be traced on topographic
maps.
Precipitation and its Measurement
Theory of Rainfall
• It is the natural process of conversion of atmospheric vapour into water.
The water so formed then falls to the earth in the form of a rainfall.
• In terms of hydrology rainfall constitutes the third phase of atmospheric
division of the hydrologic cycle, “the change of state.
• The term precipitation is also used as rainfall.
• Precipitation is however, a general term and includes all forms of falling
moisture viz., rainfall, snowfall, sleet, hail etc.
• Interesting to know the actual mechanism of precipitation. By a process
known as nucleation, ice or water crystals are formed upon the floating
particles, in the air mass (e.g.,dust particles, salt particles, etc,) The small
crystals then grow in the size by combining with other crystals. A stage
comes when they fall down on the earth as snow or as a rain water.
precipitation
• Precipitation is the primary mechanism for transporting water from
the atmosphere to the surface of the earth. There are several forms
of precipitation: rain, hail, snow, sleet, and freezing rain, but the most
common of which for the Philippines is rain.
Why do we need to measure rainfall?

For Agriculture
• what to plant in certain areas, where and
when to plant, when to harvest
For Horticulture/Viticulture
• how and when to irrigate

For Engineers
• to design structures for runoff control i.e.
storm-water drains, bridges etc.
For Scientists
• hydrological modelling of catchments
 Forms of precipitation

• Rain – water drops mostly larger than 0.5 mm in diameter

• Drizzle – tiny water droplets of size between 0.1 to 0.5mm which fall with such slow settling
rates that they occasionally appear to float
• Snow – type of precipitation which results from sublimation, i.e., water vapour directly
changes into ice.
• Hail - It is a precipitation in form of lumps of ice. The size of hail stones maybe anything more
that 5 mm.
• Snow pallets – sometimes they are called soft hail. The snow pallets are more crisp and are
the size 2 to 5mm
• Sleet – when the rain drops fall through the layer of sub freezing air near the earths surface
the rain drops get frozen to ice stage, It is called sleet or grains of ice.
 Types of rainfall

• It is typical of warm moist air by

heating from the ground surface. As a
result of heating of the surface air, the
air expands and forced to rise to great
height. As the air rises, it cools and
becomes saturated and dew point
temperature(the temperature at
which water vapour in the air
condense(gas-liquid)) is attained and
then clouds will form. By further
cooling, precipitation takes place.
• Occurs mostly in tropics where it is
hot.
• When air is hot is rises and cools and
condenses forming rain.
• If the air is hot enough, it rises very
quickly and can cause thunderstorms
• This type of precipitation associated
with a cyclonic activity and occurs
along the frontal zone (front is a
narrow zone of transition, dividing
two air masses of differing
temperature and humidity
characteristics, intersecting the
earth's surface. Fronts are most
clearly developed in areas where are
masses converge) of convergence
particularly at the ITCZ (inter tropical
convergent zone) and at the polar
fronts.
• Frontal rainfall occurs when warm air
is forced to rise over cold air.
• The moisture in the warm air
condenses as it cools which causes
clouds and rain.
• It occurs when large mass of air is
forced to rise across landform
barriers, such as high mountain
ranges, plateau, escarpment, or over
high hills. the leeward side of such
mountain barrier where the air is
ascending and warming are
characteristically drier are called rain
shadow region. It's most common on
the windward slopes of the mountain
where the on-shore moisture laden-
winds come from sea.
• Relief rainfall occurs when air has
been blown over the sea and is then
forced up over an area of high land.
• This causes the air to cool and the
moisture in the air condenses and rain
falls.
 Types of clouds

• Clouds are
classified
according to how
they are formed.
Virtually all types
of clouds and
precipitation are
due to rising air.
 VARIATION OF RAINFALLS
• Factors responsible for inequitable distribution of rainfall over large
area are the following:

Nearness to the sea

Development of Forest
Presence of mountains
Height of a place above sea
level or altitude
Direction of Wind
STANDARD RAIN GAGE

• Funnel- 8in (20.32cm) in Diameter

• Tube- 2.53in (6.43cm) in Diameter
• Overflow Can- 8in (20.32cm) in Diameter
• Stick- graduated in Inches and tenths
Measurement of rainfall

Rainfall can be measured by a rain gauge. A rain- gauge

may be of two types:

NON- RECORDING TYPE

• Only collect rain

RECORDING TYPE OR
AUTOMATIC
• Record rain and collect rain
NON AUTOMATIC/ NON-RECORDING TYPE OF RAIN-GAUGE

It gives only total rainfall

occurred during particular time
period. Recording type rain-
gauge gives hourly rainfall.

SYMONS RAIN-GAUGE
 AUTOMATIC/ RECORDING TYPE OF RAIN-GAUGE

Float Type Rain-gauge Tipping Bucket Rain-gauge Weighing Bucket Rain-gauge

 LOCATION OF THE RAIN-GAUGES
• The spot at which rain-gauge is to be installed should be truly representative
of the area, of which it is supposed to give depth of rainfall.
• The rain gauge station, should be easily accessible to the observer at all times.
• The gauge should be erected on level ground, not upon a slope or a terrace
and never on a wall or a roof.
• All other conditions satisfied, a position sheltered from the wind is preferable
to an exposed one. in mountains and near sea coasts it is very essential to
ensure that the gauge is not unduly exposed to the swept of wind.
• The gauge should be properly secured by a barbed wire fencing and
arrangement.
• The rain-gauging station should not be too close to the buildings or trees. Etc.
the nearness of such objects affects entry of rainfall in the funnel.
NETWORK OF RAIN GAUGES
The broad guide lines set up for the required network of rain-gauge
stations as per World Meteorological Organization (WMO) is as follows:
For plain areas of the basin: 1 rain-gauge for every 500 sq.km.
For hilly areas of the basin: 1 rain gauge for every 150 sq.km.

Installation of self-recording gauge also needs due importance in a network of

rain-gauge stations of the basins. Generally not less than 10% of the stations
should have self- recording rain-gauges for proper evaluation of storm.
Area of basin (sq km) Number of Rain gauges
Less than 125 1
125 to 250 2
250 – 500 3
500 – 1000 4
AVERAGE OR MEAN DEPTH OF PRECIPITATION

In a particular basin, if the rain gauging stations installed are more than one,
then while finding out the quantity of rainfall, question may arise as to which
value of rainfall should be taken. There are three main methods of calculating
average depth of precipitation upon the area of the basin.
• ARITHMETIC MEAN
• THEISSEN POLYGON METHOD
• ISO-HYETAL METHOD
ARITHMETIC MEAN
WHEN THE AREA OF THE BASIN IS LESS THAN 500 SQUARE KM
THIS METHOD IMPLIES SUMMING UP OF ALL THE RAINFALL
VALUES FROM ALL THE RAIN-GAUGING STATIONS AND THEN
DIVIDING IT BY THE NUMBER OF STATIONS IN THAT BASIN.

NOW AVERAGE DEPTH = ΣRAINFALL VALUES = 21.2 = 5.3 CM.

NUMBER OF STATIONS 4
 THEISSEN POLYGON METHOD
THIS METHOD IS VERY ACCURATE. IT IS USED FOR BASINS HAVING AREAS BETWEEN 500 – 5000 SQ KM. THIS METHOD CAN
BE BEST UNDERSTOOD WITH THE HELP OF THE FIGURE BELOW.

:TO EXPLAIN PROCEDURE COLUMN (1) SHOWS THE VARIOUS RAIN – GAUGING STATIONS, COLUMNS (2) THE AMOUNT OF RAINFALL AT
EACH STATION, COLUMN (3) GIVES AREA OF EACH POLYGONAL DOMAIN OF THE

STATIONS AND COLUMN (4) GIVES WEIGHTED DEPTH OF RAINFALL WHICH IS OBTAINED BY MULTIPLYING 2 AND 3.

NOW MEAN DEPTH OF RAINFALL = Σ COLUMN NO.4

Σ COLUMN NO.3

Σ COLUMN NUMBER 3= TOTAL AREA OF BASIN = A + B + C + D + E + F

MEAN DEPTH OF RAINFALL = 5.6A + 4.9B + 5.2C + 5.4D X 5.5E + 5.2F
A+B+C+D+E+F
WINTER MOONSON Southwest mooson

• APPEARS IN EARLY • Appears in October

MAY • Attains maximum
• MAXIMUM FLOWS strength in January
DURING AUGUST • Gradual weakens on
• DISAPPEARS march
GRADUALLY IN • Disappears in april
OCTOBER
• PERSISTS FROM
NOVEMBER TO
DECEMBER
 Mapping Philippine Vulnerability to Environmental
Disasters
Climate- and Weather-Related Risk Maps
The Philippines is prone to various climate/ weather-related hazards because of its location in the
tropics, along the path of typhoons, monsoons and El Niño-La Niña.

RISK TO PROJECTED TEMPERATURE INCREASE

The areas most at risk to temperature increase during the projected 2080 climatology are
Mindanao and Central Visayas.

The top 20 provinces at risk to projected

temperature increase are:

1. Sulu
2. Basilan
3. Lanao Del Sur
4. Maguindanao
5. Lanao Del Norte
6. Davao Del Sur
7. Zamboanga Del Sur
8. Tawi-tawi
9. Misamis Occidental
10. Camiguin
11. Siquijor
12. Misamis Oriental
13. Cebu
14. Agusan Del Norte
15. Zamboanga Del Norte
16. Albay
17. Sarangani
18. Negros Oriental
19. Negros Occidental
20. Ifugao
 RISK TO PROJECTED RAINFALL CHANGE
The map of risk to projected rainfall change shown below incorporates both rainfall decrease
during the dry season and rainfall increase during the wet season. The areas most at risk to
projected rainfall changes are Central, South and Southeast Luzon and Eastern Visayas

The top 20 provinces at risk to

projected rainfall change are:

1. Albay
2. Pampanga
3. Ifugao
4. Rizal
5. Cavite
6. Sorsogon
7. Laguna
8. Biliran
9. Batangas
10. Pangasinan
11. Masbate
12. Metro Manila
13. Tarlac
14. Nueva Ecija
15. Northern Samar
16. Aklan
17. Capiz
18. La Union
19. Western Samar
20. Romblon
 RISK TO TYPHOONS
Northern Luzon, Southeastern Luzon and Eastern Visayas are the areas highly at risk to the
occurrence of tropical depressions, tropical storms, typhoons and super typhoons.

The top 20 provinces at risk to

typhoons are:

1. Cagayan
2. Albay
3. Ifugao
4. Sorsogon
5. Kalinga
6. Ilocos Sur
7. Ilocos Norte
8. Camarines Norte
9. Mountain Province
10. Camarines Sur
11. Northern Samar
12. Catanduanes
13. Apayao
14. Pampanga
15. La Union
16. Nueva Ecija
17. Pangasinan
18. Masbate
19. Tarlac
20. Western Samar
 RISK TO EL NIÑO

Areas highly at risk to El Niño-induced drought are Central and West Mindanao.

The top 20 provinces at risk to

drought are:

1. Sulu
2. Basilan
3. Maguindanao
4. Lanao Del Sur
5. Lanao Del Norte
6. Davao Del Sur
7. Misamis Occidental
8. Sarangani
9. Zamboanga Del Sur
10. South Cotabato
11. Zamboanga Del Norte
12. North Cotabato
13. Sultan Kudarat
14. Siquijor
15. Tawi-tawi
16. Negros Oriental
17. Camiguin
18. Davao del Norte
19. Misamis Oriental
20. Bukidnon
 COMBINED CLIMATE- AND WEATHER-RELATED RISKS

The aforementioned process for computing for risk was performed to map the risk to projected
rainfall change, risk to projected temperature increase, risk to typhoons and risk to El Niño-induced
drought. A composite risk map portraying the combined risk to all these climate- and weather-
related disasters was obtained by summing all the risk scores, as in the equation below:

RC = RTY + RRC + REL + RTI

where
RC = Risk to Climate/Weather-Related Hazards
RTY = Risk to Typhoons
RRC = Risk to Rainfall Change
REL = Risk to El Niño
RTI = Risk to Temperature Increase

The results were again normalized within a 100-point scale.

Summing the four individual risk scores reveals that the areas most at risk to climate- and weather-
related risks in general are Southeastern Luzon and Eastern Visayas. This indicates that the risk to
typhoons and risk to projected rainfall change dominate the sum. The lower composite risk scores
of Mindanao likewise indicate that although Mindanao has higher risk to temperature increase and
El Niño-induced drought compared to other areas, the difference in the scores is not large.
Precipitation measurement
WEIGHING RAIN GAGE

A bucket supported by a spring or level balance.

It weighs water as it falls and records that information
continuously on a chart.
TIPPING-BUCKET GAGE

Consists of a cylindrical receiver 30cm diameter with a funnel

inside. Below the funnel a pair of tipping buckets are pivoted
such that when one of the bucket receives a rainfall of
0.25mm it tips and empties into a tank below, while the
other
bucket takes its position and the process is repeated.
Evaporation and transpiration
• Transpiration is the process by which moisture is carried through
plants from roots to small pores on the underside of leaves, where it
changes to vapor and is released to the atmosphere. Transpiration is
essentially evaporation of water from plant leaves. The combined
process is called “EVAPOTRANSPIRATION”.
STANDARD RAIN GAGE

• Funnel- 8in (20.32cm) in Diameter

• Tube- 2.53in (6.43cm) in Diameter
• Overflow Can- 8in (20.32cm) in Diameter
• Stick- graduated in Inches and tenths