MATERIAL

SCIENCE

BY-
SAMEER SINGH
Asst. Professor
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering
RCET, Bhilai
 SYLLABUS
MODULE 1
 Introduction: Material, History of Material Origin, Scope of Material Science, Overview of
different engineering materials and applications, Classification of materials, Thermal,
Chemical, Electrical, Mechanical properties of various materials, Present and future needs of
materials, Overview of Biomaterials and semi conducting materials, Various issues of Material
Usage- Economical, Environment and Social.
 Crystallography Fundamentals: Crystal, Unit Cell, Space Lattice, Arrangement of atoms in
Simple Cubic Crystals, BCC, FCC and HCP Crystals, Number of atoms per unit Cell, Atomic
Packing Factor. Metals And Alloys
 Introduction: History and development of iron and steel, Different iron ores, Raw Materials in
Production of Iron and Steel, Basic Process of iron-making and steel-making,
Classification of iron and steel,
 Cast Iron: Different types of Cast Iron, manufacture and their usage.
 SYLLABUS
MODULE 2
 Steels
Steels and alloy steel, Classification of plain carbon steels, Availability, Properties and usage of different
types of Plain Carbon Steels, Effect of various alloys on properties of steel, Uses of alloy steels (high speed
steel, stainless steel, spring steel, silicon steel) Spring materials, Iron –carbon diagram, TTT Diagram.
 Concepts and effects of Heat Treatment
Purpose of heat treatment, Cooling Curves various heaT treatment processes hardening, tempering, nnealing,
normalizing, Case hardening and surface hardening.
 Non Ferrous
Materials: Properties and uses of Light Metals and their alloys, properties and uses of White Metals and their
alloys.
 Engineering Plastics
Important sources of plastics, Classification-thermoplastic and thermo set and their uses, Various Trade
names of engg. Plastics, Plastic Coatings
 Ceramics: Classification, properties, applications
 Heat insulating materials Miscellaneous Materials
 Properties and uses of Asbestos, Glass wool, thermocole, cork, mica. Overview of tool and die materials,
Materials for bearing metals, Materials for Nuclear Energy, Refractory materials.
 Composites
WHY TO STUDY MATERIAL SCIENCE
 To understand how materials are made
 To know how materials behave under load and on environmental conditions

 To know the effect of mixing and how mixing (alloying) changes the material
properties
 To know about structure of material

 To select a material for different engineering vapplications

 To optimize the overall cost of a product

 For research

 To become multidisiplinary engineer

MODULE - 1
CHAPTER 1
HISTORY, CLASSIFICATION AND PROPERTIES OF
MATERIALS

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&t=409s
HISTORY OF MATERIAL ORIGIN
TIME DURATION EXAMPLES

PRE-HISTORY 300,000 BCE FLINT

STONE AGE 30,000 BCE–10,000 BCE STONE AXE

BRONZE AGE 5,500 BCE-3000 BCE GOLD, SILVER, COPPER , COOPER –TIN ALLOYS

IRON AGE 1,200 BCE- 2ND IRON, GLASS, STEELS , PAPER

CENTURY
ROMAN AGE 31 BC – 5TH CENTURY CEMENT, WOOD, BONE, STONES, CRYSTALLINE
(ANTIQUITY) MATERIALS, ASBESTOS, CORK, OXIDES
MIDDLE AGE A.D. 476 -A.D. 1450 DEMASCUS STEEL, LEATHER, LINEN, SILK, FUR,
STEEL UTENSILS
EARLY MODERN A.D. 1450-A.D. 1750 RUBBER, MICROSCOPE, TELESCOPE, ZINC, P.O.P.,
PERIOD ZINC-ACID BATTERY, ALUMINUM

MODERN AGE A.D. 1750-Present ALLOYS, CERAMICS, SILICON CHIPS, POLYMERS,

ENGINEERING MATERIALS
 Engineering materials refers to the
group of materials that are used in the
construction of manmade structures and
components.
 The primary function of an engineering
material is to withstand applied loading
without breaking and without exhibiting
excessive deflection.
CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS
PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

 ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES

 THERMAL PROPETIES

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 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIAL
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The physical properties of a material are  Thermal conductivity

those which can be observed without  Electrical Conductivity

any change of the identity of material.

 Density
 Specific gravity
 State Change temperatures
 Coefficients of thermal expansion
 Specific Heat
 Latent heat
 Fluidity
 Weld ability
 Elasticity
 Plasticity
 Porosity
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIAL
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 Chemical composition
 Atomic bonding

 Corrosion resistance

 Acidity or Alkalinity
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIAL

 Strength  Ductility
 Elasticity  Malleability

 Plasticity  Cohesion

 Hardness  Impact strength

 Toughness  Fatigue

 Brittleness  Creep

 Stiffness

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STRENGTH
 Strength is the mechanical property that enables a metal to resist
deformation load.
 The strength of a material is its capacity to withstand destruction under the
action of external loads.
 The stronger the materials the greater the load it can withstand.
ELASTICITY
 According to dictionary elasticity is the ability of
an object or material to resume its normal shape
after being stretched or compressed.
 When a material has a load applied to it, the load
causes the material to deform.
 The elasticity of a material is its power of coming
back to its original position after deformation when
the stress or load is released.
 Heat-treated springs, rubber etc are good examples of
elastic materials.
PLASTICITY

 The plasticity of a material is its ability

to undergo some permanent deformation
without rupture(brittle).
 Plastic deformation will take place only
after the elastic range has been exceeded.
 Pieces of evidence of plastic action in
structural materials are called yield,
plastic flow and creep.
 Materials such as clay, lead etc are
plastic at room temperature, and steel
plastic when at bright red-heat.

HARDNESS

 The resistance of a material to force

penetration or bending is hardness.
 The hardness is the ability of a material
to resist scratching, abrasion, cutting or
penetration.
 Hardness indicates the degree of hardness
of a material that can be imparted
particularly steel by the process of
hardening.
 It determines the depth and distribution of
hardness is introduce by the quenching
process.
TOUGHNESS
 Itis the property of a material which enables it to withstand shock or impact.
 Toughness is the opposite condition of brittleness.
 The toughness is may be considering the combination of strength and plasticity.
 Manganese steel, wrought iron, mild steel etc are examples of toughness materials.
BRITTLENESS
 The brittleness of a property of a
material which enables it to withstand
permanent deformation.
 Cast iron, glass are examples of brittle
materials.
 They will break rather than bend
under shock or impact.
 Generally, the brittle metals have high
compressive strength but low in tensile
strength.
STIFFNESS
 It is a mechanical property.
 The stiffness is the resistance of a material to
elastic deformation or deflection.
 In stiffness, a material which suffers light
deformation under load has a high degree of
stiffness.
 The stiffness of a structure is important in
many engineering applications, so the modulus
of elasticity is often one of the primary
properties when selecting a material.
DUCTILITY
 The ductility is a property of a
material which enables it to be
drawn out into a thin wire.
 Mild steel, copper, aluminium are
the good examples of a ductile
material.
MALLEABILITY
 The malleability is a property of a material which permits it to be
hammered or rolled into sheets of other sizes and shapes.
 Aluminium, copper, tin, lead etc are examples of malleable metals.
COHESION
 Itis a mechanical property.
 The cohesion is a property of a solid body by virtue of which they resist
from being broken into a fragment.
IMPACT STRENGTH
 Theimpact strength is the ability of a metal to resist suddenly applied
loads.
FATIGUE
 The fatigue is the long effect of repeated straining action which causes
the strain or break of the material.
 It is the term 'fatigue' use to describe the fatigue of material under
repeatedly applied forces.
 CREEP
 The creep is a slow and progressive
deformation of a material with time at a
constant force.
 The simplest type of creep deformation is
viscous flow.
 Some metals are generally exhibiting
creep at high temperature, whereas
plastic, rubber, and similar amorphous
material are very temperature sensitive to
creep.
 The force for a specified rate of strain at
constant temperature is called creep strength.
ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIAL
 Resistivity
 Conductivity

 Permittivity

 Thermoelectricity
THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIAL
 Specific Heat
 Heat capacity

 Thermal Expansion

 Thermal conductivity

 Melting point

 Boiling point

 Freezing point

 Dew point
 Specific Heat
 the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of a substance by
one Celsius degree.

 Heat capacity
 the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of an object by 1 degree Celcius.

 Thermal Expansion
 Thermal expansion is the tendency of matter to change its shape, area, volume, and
density in response to a change in temperature.

 Thermal conductivity
 The rate at which heat is transferred by conduction through a unit cross-section area of a
material.
 Melting point
 The temperature at which it changes state from solid to liquid.

 Boiling point
 The temperature at which the liquid boils and changes into gaseous state at the
atmospheric pressure is called boiling point.

 Freezing point
 Liquids have a characteristic temperature at which they turn into solids, known as
their freezing point.

 Dew point
 The temperature at which the air is completely saturated and can't hold any more moisture.
BIOMATERIALS
 Polymers, synthetic and natural
 Metals
 Ceramics
 Composites
CHAPTER 2
BIOMATERIALS
CHAPTER 3
CONDUCTOR, SEMICONDUCTOR AND INSULATORS
CONDUCTOR, SEMI CONDUCTORS AND
INSULATORS
 Insulators An insulator is a material that does not conduct electrical current
under normal conditions. Most good insulators are compounds rather than single-
element materials and have very high resistivities. Valence electrons are tightly
bound to the atoms; therefore, there are very few free electrons in an insulator.
Examples of insulators are rubber, plastics, glass, and quartz.
 Conductors A conductor is a material that easily conducts electrical current.
Most metals are good conductors. The best conductors are single-element
materials, such as copper (Cu), silver (Ag), gold (Au), and aluminum (Al), which
are characterized by atoms with only one valence electron very loosely bound to
the atom. These loosely bound valence electrons become free electrons.
Therefore, in a conductive material the free electrons are valence electrons.
CONDUCTOR, SEMI CONDUCTORS AND
INSULATORS
 Semiconductors A semiconductor is a material that is between conductors and
insulators in its ability to conduct electrical current. A semiconductor in its pure
(intrinsic) state is neither a good conductor nor a good insulator. Single element
semiconductors are antimony (Sb), arsenic (As), boron (B), silicon (Si), and
germanium (Ge). Compound semiconductors such as gallium arsenide, are also
commonly used. The single-element semiconductors are characterized by atoms
with four valence electrons. Silicon is the most commonly used semiconductor.
INSULATORS, CONDUCTORS, SEMICONDUCTORS
FROM ENERGY BAND STRUCTURES
E
E E

conduction band conduction

empty band
-
Band partially-filled
Band electron
Forbidden gap band
gap Eg < 5eV hole
region Eg > 5eV +
valence
valence band band
filled

Insulator Semiconductor Conductor

CHAPTER 4 CRYTALLOGRAPHY

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CRYSTALLOGRAPHY
 CRYSTAL: A crystal is a solid whose atoms are arranged in a "highly ordered"
repeating pattern. These patterns are called crystal systems. If a mineral has its
atoms arranged in one of them, then that mineral is a crystal.
 UNIT CELL: A unit cell is the smallest representation of an entire crystal.
 Theunit cell is the simplest repeating unit in the crystal.
 Opposite faces of a unit cell are parallel.

 SPACE LATTICE: A space lattice is an array of points showing how particles

(atoms, ions or molecules) are arranged at different sites in three dimensional
spaces.
SIMPLE CUBIC CELL
 The simple cubic unit cell is delineated by eight atoms, which mark the actual
cube. These are corner atoms, so each one only contributes one eighth of an
atom to the unit cell, thus giving us only one net atom.
BODY CENTRED CUBIC (BCC) CELL
 A BCC unit cell has atoms at each corner of the
cube and an atom at the centre of the structure.
The diagram shown below is an open structure.
According to this structure, the atom at the
body centre wholly belongs to the unit cell in
which it is present.
 In BCC unit cell every corner has atoms.
 There is one atom present at the centre of the
structure
 Below diagram is an open structure
 According to this structure atom at the body
centres wholly belongs to the unit cell in which it
is present.
FACE CENTRED CUBIC (FCC) CELL
 An FCC unit cell contains atoms at all the corners
of the crystal lattice and at the centre of all the
faces of the cube. The atom present at the face-
centered is shared between 2 adjacent unit cells
and only 1/2 of each atom belongs to an
individual cell.
 In FCC unit cell atoms are present in all the corners
of the crystal lattice
 Also, there is an atom present at the centre of every
face of the cube
 This face-centre atom is shared between two adjacent
unit cells
 Only 12 of each atom belongs to a unit cell
HEXAGONAL CLOSE PACKED (HCP) CELL
 The Hexagonal Close-Packed
(HCP) crystal structure is one
of the most common ways for
atoms to arrange themselves in
metals.
 HCP is one of the most stable
crystal structures and has the
highest packing density.
ATOMIC PACKING FACTOR (APF)
Atomic packing is the ratio of total volume of atoms and total volume of the unit
cell.
APF =

APF =
Where Ne = Effective number of atoms = Ni + (Nf /2) + (Nc / No of corners)
here, Ni = Number of atoms inside the cell
Nf = Number of atoms on the face
Nc = Number of corners
APF FOR SIMPLE CUBIC CELL
APF FOR BCC
APF FOR FCC
CHAPTER 5
INTRODUCTION TO IRON AND STEEL
IRON ORES

SIDERITE

HEMATITE MAGNETITE
LIMONITE
MAKING PIG IRON (BLAST FURNACE)
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MAKING CAST IRON (CUPOLA FURNACE)

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=znL8sqK1-sQ
TYPES OF CASTE IRON
 There are primarily 4 different types of cast iron. Different processing
techniques can be used to produce the desired type, which include:
 Grey Cast Iron

 White Cast Iron

 Ductile Cast Iron

 Malleable Cast Iron

Grey Cast Iron
 Grey Cast iron refers to a type of cast iron that has been processed to produce free
graphite (carbon) molecules in the metal. The size and structure of the graphite can
be controlled by moderating the cooling rate of the iron and by adding silicon to
stabilize the graphite. When Grey Cast Iron fractures, it fractures along the graphite
flakes and has a grey appearance at the fracture site.
 Grey Cast Iron is not as ductile as other cast irons, however it has an excellent
thermal conductivity and the best damping capacity of all cast irons. It is also hard
wearing making it a popular material to work with.
 The high wear resistance, high thermal conductivity, and the excellent damping
capacity of Grey Cast Iron makes it ideal for engine blocks, fly wheels, manifolds,
and cookware.
 It has Good machinability
 It has Good resistance to galling and wear
 It has high compressive strength
 It is brittle
White Cast Iron
 White Cast Iron is named based on the appearance of fractures. By tightly
controlling the carbon content, reducing the silicon content, and controlling the
cooling rate of iron, it is possible to consume all carbon in the iron in the
generation of iron carbide. This ensures there are no free graphite molecules and
creates an iron that is hard, brittle, extremely wear resistant and has a high
compressive strength. As there are no free graphite molecules, any fracture site
appears white, giving White Cast Iron its name.
 White Cast Iron is used primarily for its wear resistant properties in pump
housings, mill linings and rods, crushers and brake shoes.
 It has High compressive strength
 It is difficult to machine
 It has Good hardness
 It has Resistance to wear
Ductile Cast Iron
 Ductile Cast Iron is produced by adding a small amount of magnesium,
approximately 0.2%, which makes the graphite form spherical inclusions that
give a more ductile cast iron. It can also withstand thermal cycling better than
other cast iron products.
 Ductile Cast Iron is predominantly used for its relative ductility and can be found
extensively in water and sewerage infrastructure. The thermal cycling resistance
also makes it a popular choice for crankshafts, gears, heavy duty suspensions and
brakes.

 It has High ductility

 It has High strength
Malleable Cast Iron
 Malleable Cast Iron is a type of cast iron that is manufactured by heat treating
White Cast Iron to break down the iron carbide back into free graphite. This
produces a malleable and ductile product that has good fracture toughness at
low temperatures.
 Malleable Cast Iron is used for electrical fittings, mining equipment and
machine parts.
 Its properties are
 They have High ductility
 They are tougher than gray cast iron
 They can be twisted or bent without fracture
 They have excellent machining capabilities
ADVANTAGES OF CAST IRON
 It has Good casting properties  It has excellent anti-vibration (or

 It is available in large quantities, hence damping) properties hence it is used to

produced in mass scale. Tools required make machine frames
for casting process are relatively cheap  It has good Sensibility
and inexpensive. This results into low  It has excellent resistance to wear
cost of its products.  It has constant Mechanical properties
 It can be given any complex shape and
between 20 to 350 degree Celsius
size without using costly machining 
It has very low notch sensitivity
operations
 It has Low stress concentration
 It has three to five times more
 It bears Low cost
compression strength compared to
 It has Durability
steel
 It has Good machinability (gray cast  It has Resistance to deformation

iron)
DISADVANTAGES OF CAST IRON
 It is Prone to rusting
 It has poor tensile strength

 Its parts are section sensitive, this is due to slow cooling of thick sections.

 failure of Its parts is sudden and total, it does not exhibit yield point.

 It has poor impact resistance

 Compared to steel it has poor machinability

 It has High weight to strength ratio

 It has High brittleness

 It is Non machinable (white cast iron)

APPLICATIONS OF CAST IRON
 It is used in making pipes, to carry suitable fluids
 It is used in making different machines

 It is used in making automotive parts

 It is used in making pots pans and utensils

 It is used in making anchor for ships.

MODULE - 2
CHAPTER 1
 TYPES OF STEEL
 EFFECT OF VARIOUS ELEMENTS ON STEEL
 APPLICATIONS OF STEEL
 Tantalum (TA)
 Used as stabilizing elements in stainless steels. Each has a high affinity for carbon and forms
carbides, which are uniformly dispersed throughout the steel. Thus, localized precipitation of
carbides at grain boundaries is prevented.
 Titanium (TI)
 Used as stabilizing elements in stainless steels. Each has a high affinity for carbon and forms
carbides, which are uniformly dispersed throughout the steel. Thus, localized precipitation of
carbides at grain boundaries is prevented.
 Tungsten (W)
 Increases strength, wear resistance, hardness and toughness. Tungsten steels have superior hot-
working and greater cutting efficiency at elevated temperatures.
 Vanadium (V)
 Increases strength, hardness, wear resistance and resistance to shock impact. It retards grain
growth, permitting higher quenching temperatures. It also enhances the red-hardness
properties of high-speed metal cutting tools.
TYPES OF STEEL
1. CARBON STEEL
 Carbon steel looks dull, matte-like, and is known to be vulnerable to corrosion.

 Overall, there are three subtypes to this one: low, medium, and high carbon steel,
with low containing about .30% of carbon, medium .60%, and high 1.5%.
 The name itself actually comes from the reality that they contain a very small
amount of other alloying elements.
 They are exceptionally strong, which is why they are often used to make things
like knives, high-tension wires, automotive parts, and other similar items.
2. ALLOY STEEL
 Next up is alloy steel, which is a mixture of several different metals, like nickel,
copper, and aluminum.
 These tend to be more on the cheaper side, more resistant to corrosion and are
favored for some car parts, pipelines, ship hulls, and mechanical projects.
 For this one, the strength depends on the concentration of the elements that it
contains.
3. TOOL STEEL
 Tool steel is famous for being hard and both heat and scrape resistant.

 The name is derived from the fact that they are very commonly used to make
metal tools, like hammers
 For these, they are made up of things like cobalt, molybdenum, and tungsten, and
that is the underlying reason why tool steel has such advanced durability and heat
resistance features.
4. STAINLESS STEEL
 Last but not least, stainless steels are probably the most well-known type on the
market.
 This type is shiny and generally has around 10 to 20% chromium, which is their
main alloying element. With this combination, it allows the steel to be resistant to
corrosion and very easily molded into varying shapes.
 Because of their easy manipulation, flexibility, and quality, stainless steel can be
found in surgical equipment, home applications, silverware, and even
implemented as exterior cladding for commercial/industrial buildings.
EFFECTS OF COMMON ALLOYING ELEMENTS IN STEEL

Carbon (C)
 The most important constituent of steel. It raises tensile strength, hardness, and
resistance to wear and abrasion. It lowers ductility, toughness and machinability.
Chromium (CR)
 Increases tensile strength, hardness, hardenability, toughness, resistance to wear
and abrasion, resistance to corrosion, and scaling at elevated temperatures.
Cobalt (CO)
 Increases strength and hardness and permits higher quenching temperatures and
increases the red hardness of high speed steel. It also intensifies the individual
effects of other major elements in more complex steels.
Columbium (CB)
 Used as stabilizing elements in stainless steels. Each has a high affinity for
carbon and forms carbides, which are uniformly dispersed throughout the steel.
Thus, localized precipitation of carbides at grain boundaries is prevented.
Copper (CU)
 In significant amounts is detrimental to hot-working steels. Copper negatively
affects forge welding, but does not seriously affect arc or oxyacetylene welding.
Copper can be detrimental to surface quality. Copper is beneficial to atmospheric
corrosion resistance when present in amounts exceeding 0.20%. Weathering steels
are sold having greater than 0.20% Copper.
Manganese (MN)
 A deoxidizer and degasifier and reacts with sulfur to improve forgeability. It
increases tensile strength, hardness, hardenability and resistance to wear. It
decreases tendency toward scaling and distortion. It increases the rate of carbon-
penetration in carburizing.
Molybdenum (MO)
 Increases strength, hardness, hardenability, and toughness, as well as creep
resistance and strength at elevated temperatures. It improves machinability and
resistance to corrosion and it intensifies the effects of other alloying elements. In
hot-work steels and high speed steels, it increases red-hardness properties.
Phosphorus (P)
 Increases strength and hardness and improves machinability. However, it adds
marked brittleness or cold-shortness to steel.
Silicon (SI)
 A deoxidizer and degasifier. It increases tensile and yield strength, hardness,
forgeability and magnetic permeability.
Sulfur (S)
 Improves machinability in free-cutting steels, but without sufficient manganese it
produces brittleness at red heat. It decreases weldability, impact toughness and
ductility.
Nickel (NI)
 Increases strength and hardness without sacrificing ductility and toughness. It also
increases resistance to corrosion and scaling at elevated temperatures when
introduced in suitable quantities in high-chromium (stainless) steels.
APPLICATIONS OF STEEL
Long
 A steel bridge

 A steel pylon suspending overhead power lines

 As reinforcing bars and mesh in reinforced concrete

 Railroad tracks

 Structural steel in modern buildings and bridges

 Wires

 Input to reforging applications

APPLICATIONS OF STEEL
Flat carbon
 Major appliances

 Magnetic cores

 The inside and outside body of automobiles, trains, and ships.

Weathering (COR-TEN)
 Intermodal containers

 Outdoor sculptures

 Architecture

 Highliner train cars

APPLICATIONS OF STEEL
Stainless Steel
 A stainless steel gravy boat

 Cutlery

 Rulers

 Surgical instruments

 Watches

 Guns

 Rail passenger vehicles

 Tablets

 Trash Cans

 Body piercing jewellery

 Inexpensive rings

 Components of spacecraft and space stations

CHAPTER 2
 IRON-CARBON DIAGRAM
 TTT DIAGRAM
 HEAT TREATMENT

REFER-
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4F6ANK6fIUA
IRON CARBON PHASE DIAGRAM
ALLOTROPIC TRANSFORMATIONS IN IRON

 Iron is an allotropic metal,

which means that it can exist in
more than one type of lattice

 structure depending upon

temperature. A cooling curve
for pure iron is shown in fig:
THE IRON–IRON CARBIDE (FE–FE3C) PHASE
DIAGRAM
 The Fe-C (or more precisely the Fe-Fe3C) diagram is an important one.
Cementite is a metastable phase and ‘strictly speaking’ should not be
included in a phase diagram. But the decomposition rate of cementite is
small and hence can be thought of as ‘stable enough’ to be included in a
phase diagram. Hence, we typically consider the Fe-Fe3C part of the Fe-C
phase diagram.

 C is an interstitial impurity in Fe. It forms a solid solution with α, γ, δ

phases of iron
 In their simplest form,
steels are alloys of Iron
(Fe) and Carbon (C).
The Fe-C phase diagram
is a fairly complex one,
but we will only
consider the steel part of
the diagram, up to
around 7% Carbon.

 Carbon Solubility in
Iron
Solubility of carbon in Fe
is function of structure and
temperature.
PHASES APPEARED IN FE–FE3C PHASE DIAGRAM

1. α-ferrite ( solid solution of C in BCC Fe)

 It is an interstitial solid solution of a small
amount of carbon dissolved in α iron.
 BCC has relatively small interstitial positions

 The maximum solubility is 0.022%C at 723 ° C

and it dissolves only 0.008%C at room
temperature. BCC has relatively small
interstitial positions

 It is the softest structure that appears on the

diagram
• Transforms to FCC γ-austenite at 912 °C
2. Γ-AUSTENITE –(SOLID SOLUTION OF C IN FCC FE)

• The maximum solubility of C is

2.14 wt %. at 1147 ° C. FCC has
larger interstitial positions.

• Transforms to BCC δ-ferrite at

1395 °C

• Is not stable below the eutectic

temperature(727°C) unless cooled
rapidly (discuss later in unit4)
 γ

 Interstitial solid solution of carbon in γ iron.

Austenite
solid solution of carbon
has FCC instructure,
crystal α-iron.
γ(Austenite)  α-ferrite BCC crystal
high solubility structure
of carbon up to 2.14% at
(1147ºC).
low solubility of carbon – up to 0.25%
at1333
Soft,ºF (723ºC).
ductile, α-ferriteand
malleable exists at RT
non-magnetic
3. δ-ferrite (solid solution of C in BCC Fe)

• The same structure as α-ferrite

• Stable only at high T, above 1394 °C. The stability of the phase ranges
between 1394-1539°C.
 Melts at 1538 °C

4. Fe-C liquid solution

 δ

Solid solution of carbon in δ-iron.

solid
The solution of carbonofinδ-ferrite
crystal structure α-iron. is BCC (cubic
δ-(FERRRITE) body
α-ferrite BCC crystal structure
centered).
low solubility of carbon – up to 0.25%
at 1333 ºF (723ºC). α-ferrite exists at RT
5. FE3C (IRON CARBIDE OR CEMENTITE)

• This intermetallic compound is metastable, it remains as a compound

indefinitely at room T, but decomposes (very slowly, within several years)
into α-Fe and C (graphite) at 650 - 700 °C

 It is typically hard and brittle interstitial compound of low tensile strength

(approx. 5000psi) but high compressive strength.

 It is the hardest structure that appears on the diagram.

 Fe3C

 Intermetallic compound, having fixed composition

Fesolid solution of carbon in α-iron.
3C.
Fe3C-(Cementite) α-ferrite BCC crystal structure
Orthorhombic crystal structure,12-iron .4- carbon
low solubility of carbon – up to 0.25%
Hard and brittle
at1333 ºF (723ºC). α-ferrite exists at RT
Ferromagnetic upto 210 C
 Peritectic Reaction:

0.55-0.18
δ= X 100
0.55-0.1
= 82.2 %
0.55
0.18-0.1
L= X 100
0.55-0.1
1492 ºC = 17.8%
S1 + L S2

L + δ → γ
(0.55%C) (0.10%C) (0.18%C)
EUTECTIC AND EUTECTOID REACTIONS IN FE–FE3C

γ(0.76 wt% C) ↔ α (0.022 wt% C) +

Fe3C
 Eutectoid Reaction:
S1 727 ºC S2 + S3

6.67-0.8
α = x 100
6.67-0.008
Fe3C = 88.1%

0.8- 0.025
Fe3C = x 100
6.67-0.008
γ → α + Fe
Fe33C
C = 11.09 %
(0.80%C) (0.025%C) (6.67%C)

Pearlite
 Eutectic Reaction (at)

L1 1147 ºC S1 + S2

Liquid → γ + Fe3C
(4.30%C) (2.00%C) (6.67%C)

Ledeburite
TTT DIAGRAMS
TTT diagram stands for “time-temperature-
transformation” diagram. It is also called
isothermal transformation diagram

Definition: TTT diagrams give the kinetics of

isothermal transformations.
 TTT DIAGRAM
T (Time) T(Temperature) T(Transformation) diagram is a plot of temperature versus the
logarithm of time for a steel alloy of definite composition. It is used to determine when
transformations begin and end for an isothermal (constant temperature) heat treatment of a
previously austenitized alloy. When austenite is cooled slowly to a temperature below
LCT (Lower Critical Temperature), the structure that is formed is Pearlite. As the cooling
rate increases, the pearlite transformation temperature gets lower. The microstructure of
the material is significantly altered as the cooling rate increases. By heating and cooling a
series of samples, the history of the austenite transformation may be recorded. TTT
diagram indicates when a specific transformation starts and ends and it also shows what
percentage of transformation of austenite at a particular temperature is achieved.
TTT DIAGRAM
 Transformation Transformation ends
starts/begins
Stable Austenite

Coarse Pearlite
Unstable Austenite

Fine Pearlite

Feathery Bainite

Unstable Austenite Acicular Bainite

Ms
Austenite + Martensite

Mf
Martensite Time-Temperature Transformation Curves
 STABLE AUSTENITE

Near A1

Sluggish transformation 550

Austenite to
Bianite in feather
Coarse Pearlite shaped patches
Greater time for 550-220
Degree of under
diffusion cooling high Slow rate of diffusion of
Carbon atoms retards
increased tendency of
Austenite transformation,
 PEARLITE

AUSTENITE
 Austenite is stable at temperatures above LCT but unstable below LCT. Left curve

indicates the start of a transformation and right curve represents the finish of a

transformation. The area between the two curves indicates the transformation of austenite

to different types of crystal structures. (Austenite to pearlite, austenite to martensite,

austenite to bainite transformation.) Isothermal Transform Diagram shows that γ to

transformation (a) is rapid! at speed of sound; (b) the percentage of transformation depends

on Temperature only:
 Upper half of TTT Diagram
(Austenite-Pearlite Transformation Area)
As indicated when is cooled to temperatures below LCT, it transforms to other
crystal structures due to its unstable nature. A specific cooling rate may be chosen
so that the transformation of austenite can be 50 %, 100 % etc. If the cooling rate
is very slow such as annealing process, the cooling curve passes through the entire
transformation area and the end product of this the cooling process becomes 100%
Pearlite. In other words, when slow cooling is applied, all the Austenite will
transform to Pearlite. If the cooling curve passes through the middle of the
transformation area, the end product is 50 % Austenite and 50 % Pearlite, which
means that at certain cooling rates we can retain part of the Austenite, without
transforming it into Pearlite.
 Lower half of TTT Diagram
(Austenite-Martensite and Bainite Transformation Areas)
 If a cooling rate is very high, the cooling curve will remain
on the left hand side of the Transformation Start curve. In
this case all Austenite will transform to Martensite. If there
is no interruption in cooling the end product will be
martensite.
TTT DIAGRAM GIVES
- Nature of transformation-isothermal or athermal (time
independent) or mixed
- Type of transformation-reconstructive, or displacive
- Rate of transformation
- Stability of phases under isothermal transformation
conditions
- Temperature or time required to start or finish
transformation
- Qualitative information about size scale of product
- Hardness of transformed products
DIAGRAM
Composition of steel-
(a) carbon wt%,
(b) alloying element wt%

Grain size of austenite

Heterogeneity of austenite
HEAT TREATMENT
 Heat treatment is a method used to alter the physical, and sometimes chemical
properties of a material. The most common application is metallurgical
  It involves the use of heating or chilling, normally to extreme temperatures, to
achieve a desired result such as hardening or softening of a material
 It applies only to processes where the heating and cooling are done for the
specific purpose of altering properties intentionally
 Generally, heat treatment uses phase transformation during heating and cooling
to change a microstructure in a solid state.
HEAT TREATMENT : TYPES

 Hardening: When a metal is hardened, it’s heated to a point where the

elements in the material transform into a solution. Defects in the structure are
then transformed by creating a reliable solution and strengthening the metal.
This increases the hardness of the metal or alloy, making it less malleable.
 Annealing: This process is used on metals like copper, aluminum, silver, steel,
and brass. These materials are heated to a certain temperature, are held at that
temperature until transformation occurs, and then are slowly air-dried. This
process softens the metal, making it more workable and less likely to fracture
or crack.
 Tempering: Some materials like iron-based alloys are very hard, making them
brittle. Tempering can reduce brittleness and strengthen the metal. In the
tempering process, the metal is heated to a temperature lower than the critical
point to reduce brittleness and maintain hardness.

 Case Hardening: The outside of the material is hardened while the inside
remains soft. Since hardening can cause materials to become brittle, case
hardening is used for materials that require flexibility while maintaining a durable
wear layer.

 Normalization: Similar to annealing, this process makes the steel more tough and
ductile by heating the material to critical temperatures and keeping it at this
temperature until transformation occurs.
CHAPTER 3
NON-FERROUS METALS
 Aluminium and its alloys
 Copper and its alloys
 Tin and its alloys
 Zinc and its alloys
ALUMINIUM