ME-339 Control Engineering

Lecture 7
• Modeling in the Frequency Domain
– Nonlinearities
• All systems studied so far were assumed to be
linear time invariant or LTI systems.
• A linear system possesses two properties:
– Superposition: The property of superposition
means that the output response of a system to
the sum of inputs is the sum of the responses
to the individual inputs. Thus, if an input of r1(t)
yields an output of c1(t) and an input of r2(t)
yields an output of c2(t), then an input of r1(t) +
r2(t) yields an output c1(t) + c2(t).
– Homogeneity: The property of homogeneity
describes the response of the system to a
multiplication of the input by a scalar.
Specifically, in a linear system, the property of
homogeneity is demonstrated if for an input of
r1(t) that yields an output of c1(t), an input of
Ar1(t) yields an output of Ac1(t); that is,
multiplication of an input by a scalar yields a
response that is multiplied by the same scalar.
• We can visualize system linearity as shown in the
figure below:
– Part (ɑ) is a linear system where the output is
always ½ the input, or f(x) = 0.5x, regardless of
the value of x.
– Thus each of the two properties of linear
systems applies. For example, an input of 1
yields an output of ½ and an input of 2 yields
an output of 1.
– Using superposition, an input that is the sum of
the original inputs, or 3, should yield an output
that is the sum of the individual outputs, or 1.5.
From (ɑ), an input of 3 does indeed yield an
output of 1.5.
– To test the property of homogeneity, assume
an input of 2, which yields an output of 1.
Multiplying this input by 2 should yield an
output of twice as much, or 2. Again from (ɑ),
an input of 4 does indeed yield an output of 2.
– The properties of linearity certainly do not
apply to the relationship shown in part (b) of
the figure.
• Examples of Nonlinearities
– An electronic amplifier is linear over a specific
range but exhibits the nonlinearity called
saturation at high input voltages.
– A motor that does not respond at very low input
voltages due to frictional forces exhibits a
nonlinearity called dead zone.
– Gears that do not fit tightly exhibit a nonlinearity
called backlash: the input moves over a small
range without the output responding.
• A designer can often make a linear approximation
to a nonlinear system.
• Linear approximations simplify the analysis and
design of a system and are used as long as the
results yield a good approximation to reality.
• For example, a linear relationship can be
established at a point on the nonlinear curve if the
range of input values about that point is small and
the origin is translated to that point. (Electronic
amplifiers are an example of physical devices that
perform linear amplification with small excursions
about a point.)
• How to carry out linearization?
– The first step is to recognize the nonlinear
component within the system and write the
nonlinear differential equation. (Presence of
operators like sin(x) or cos(x) usually makes
system equations nonlinear.)
– When we linearize a nonlinear differential
equation, we linearize it for small-signal inputs
about the steady-state solution when the small-
signal input is equal to zero. This steady-state
solution is called equilibrium and is selected as
the second step in the linearization process.
– For example, when a pendulum is at rest, it is
at equilibrium. The angular displacement is
described by a nonlinear differential equation,
but it can be expressed with a linear differential
equation for small excursions about this
equilibrium point.
– Next we linearize the nonlinear differential
equation, and then we take the Laplace
transform of the linearized differential equation,
assuming zero initial conditions.
– Finally, we separate input and output variables
and form the transfer function.
– If we assume a nonlinear system operating at
point A, [x0, f(x0)] in the following figure, small
changes in the input can be related to changes
in the output about the point by way of the
slope of the curve at the point A.
– Thus, if the slope of the curve at point A is ma,
then small excursions of the input about point
A, δx, yield small changes in the output, δf(x),
related by the slope at point A.
– Thus
– From which

– And

– This relationship is shown graphically in the

preceding figure where a new set of axes, δx
and δf(x), is created at the point A, and f(x) is
approximately equal to f(x0), the ordinate of
the new origin, plus small excursions, maδx,
away from point A.
– The previous discussion can be formalized
using the Taylor series expansion, which
expresses the value of a function in terms of
the value of that function at a particular point,
the excursion away from that point, and
derivatives evaluated at that point.
– For small excursions of x from x0, we can
neglect higher-order terms. The resulting
approximation will yield a straight-line
relationship between the change in f(x) and the
excursions away from x0. This result is identical
to that derived intuitively in the discussion
above.
• Time Response
– Introduction
• After a mathematical representation has been
developed for a system (or subsystem), it is
analyzed for its transient and steady-state
response to see if these characteristics yield the
desired behavior.
• Time response as a control systems tool is
primarily concerned with evaluation of transient
response from the system model (transfer
function).
• Systems to be analyzed are distinctly classified as
first or second order systems depending upon the
order of the denominator of the transfer function
after common factors in the numerator have been
cancelled out.
• The output response of a system is composed of
the natural (or transient) response and forced (or
steady-state) response.
• For rapid analysis of any system’s response, we
would like to determine the roots of the numerator
and denominator equations of the transfer function.
The technique is considered qualitative in nature
because sometimes the desired result can be
achieved even through inspection.
• Poles and Zeroes
– Poles of a transfer function are:
» The values of the s variable that cause the
transfer function to become infinite or,
» Any roots of the denominator of the transfer
function that are common to the roots of the
numerator.
– Zeroes of a transfer function are:
» The values of the s variable that cause the
transfer function to become zero or,
» Any roots of the numerator of the transfer
function that are common to the roots of the
denominator.
• Example: A First Order System
– For the transfer function G(s) in the preceding
figure, a pole exists at s = -5, and a zero exists
at -2.
– These values are plotted on the complex plane
in part (b) of the figure above using an X for the
pole and an O for the zero.
– The transfer function is multiplied by a step
input (1/s) in order to evaluate its output
response, which becomes:
– Where

– Thus,
– From the development summarized in the
preceding figure, we can draw following
conclusions:
» A pole of the input function generates the
form of the forced response (i.e. the pole at
the origin generated a step function at the
output).
» A pole of the (system) transfer function
generates the form of the natural response
(i.e. the pole at -5 generated e-5t).
» A pole on the real axis generates an
exponential response of the form e-αt, where
–α is the pole location on the real axis. Thus
the farther to the left a pole is on the
negative real axis, the faster the exponential
transient response will decay to zero.
» The zeroes and poles generate the
amplitudes of both the forced and natural
responses (as can be seen from the
calculation of A and B in the above
mentioned equations).
• Reading Assignment
– Text Book / Chapter 2 / Topics 2.10 and 2.11.
– Text Book / Chapter 4 / Topics 4.1 and 4.2.