Algebraic

Structure
 Algebraic
Structure
<{a,b,c,d}, *>
* a b c d

a a c b d
1. Operation * is Closed

b b c b a 2. Not Commutative.

c c d b c

d a a b b
Binary Operations and General Properties

Let S- be a non-empty set and * (star) be an operation on S. The

operation on the set is a rule, which assigns to each ordered pair of
elements of the set, a unique element of S. Let f : A * A→ A.

Closure Property Consider a binary operation, *. The operation *

is said to be closed, if for all

The new element also belongs to S.

Tables:
Example : A set of integers Z is closed with respect to the
binary operations, namely, addition, multiplication and
subtraction but not with respect to division.

Example: The set of odd integers is not closed with

respect to addition, since sum of two odd integers is an
even, which is not the member of the set.
Example: S = {1,-1} is algebraic structure under * As
1*1 = 1, 1*-1 = -1, -1*-1 = 1 all results belong to S.
Example : <P(S), ∪ ,∩> where S = {a,b}
P(S)={∅, {a}, {b}, {a, b} } = {B0, B1, B2, B3}

∪ ∩
B0 B1 B2 B3 B0 B1 B2 B3

B0 B0 B1 B2 B3 B0 B0 B0 B0 B0

B1 B1 B1 B3 B3 B1 B0 B1 B0 B1

B2 B2 B3 B2 B3 B2 B0 B0 B2 B2

B3 B3 B3 B3 B3 B3 B0 B1 B2 B3
1. Commutative Property
Associative Property
Consider a binary operation *.
For any
Example The addition (+) and multiplication (.) are
Associative in the following sets .
N = The set of natural numbers, I or Z = The set of Integers,
Q = The set of Rational, R = The set of real, C = The set of
Complex numbers.
(a+b) + c = a+ (b+c) , (a.b) . c = a. (b.c)
Existence of Identity Element
Consider an element e , such that e * a = a *e = a

Then the element e is called the identity element of S with respect to

the * binary operation .

For example , 0 and 1 are the identity elements of Z with respect to the
operations of addition and multiplication respectively.

Existence of Inverse:
Consider an element . The element , is called

the inverse of a under the operation * .such that

 Cancellation Property :
a+b=a+c Then a is cancellable

Zero Element:
Let S be a semigroup. An element 0 ∈ S is called a left
(right) zero in S iff
0a = 0 (a0 = 0) for all a ∈ S

Clock/Cyclic Algebra: Tremblay

 Semigroups

Let A be a nonempty set, with a binary function ⊕:

<A, ⊕> is a semigroup
if function f i.e. ⊕ : A× A → A defined on it.
1. ⊕ is closed operation
2. ⊕ is associative:
(a⊕b)⊕c = a⊕(b⊕c)

The Semigroup (A,⊕) is said to be commutative if ⊕

is a commutative operation.
 Examples :
1.The power set of a set S , P(S) together with the
operation of union is a commutative semigroup
( P(S), U ).

2. Let L be a lattice. Then if we define a*b = a^b,

then L is a commutative semigroup.
 Monoid
A monoid <M, *, e> is a set M together with an associative
binary operation ∗: M×M→M
with an identity element e∈M; for any a,b,c ∈ M,
we have:
•Closure: a∗b ∈M;
•Associativity: a∗(b ∗ c)=(a ∗ b) ∗ c;
•Identity: There exists a e ∈ M such that e ∗ a = a ∗ e = a.

Semigroup = set + binary associative operation.

Monoid = semigroup + identity element.
 Monoid :
Definition :
A monoid is a semigroup(S , *, e) 0
with an identity element e. f0 f1 f2 f3

Examples of monoids are

<power set, U> f0 f0 f1 f2 f3
and <Lattice U>

f1 f1 f2 f3 f0
f={f0, f1, f2, f3}
f2 f2 f1 f0 f1

f3 f3 f0 f1 f2

It is monoid (identity element e = f0) with respect to the

operation composition .
Examples :1
1. * is closed operation

* 2. Associativity
a b a. a*(a*b)=(a*a)*b Which is b=b

a a b b. b*(a*b) = (b*a)*b Which is b=b

Semigroup <A,*>
b b b
c. Identity element is a
As a*a= a and b*a=b e = a

Monoid<A,*,a>
 Example : 2
1. Let A={a,b} which of the folowing tables determine semigroup
or/and monoid

1. * is closed operation
*
a b 2. Associativity
a. a*(a*b)=(a*a)*b
a a b Which is b=b

But
b a a b. b*(a*b) ≠ (b*a)*b

Not Semigroup Nor Monoid

 Groups
Let S – be a non-empty set and be a binary operation on set S.

Then <S,*> is called a group under the operation if the following

properties hold.

• Closure Operation:

• Associative Property:

• Existence of Identity element: e * a = a *e = a

• Each element has Inverse element:

In addition to the fore said four properties, if the group satisfies the
commutative property, then the group is called commutative
group or abelian group.
Example :
1. Let G be the set of all non zero real numbers and let a*b = ab/2
Show that G is a Group and it is abelian Group.
Ans:
1. * is closed operation (Closure )
2. Associativity a. a*(b*c) = (a*b)*c
Which is a*(bc/2) =ab/2*c
abc/4 = abc/4 Semigroup <G,*>
Identity element is 2
As a*e= a ae/2=a
So e = 2. Monoid<G,*,2>
Inverse Element

a* a-1= e here e= 2 so aa-1/2 = 2 a-1 =4/a

Hence it is Group.
Commutative a*b=b*a so Abelian Group.
Example :
2. Determine whether the set of real numbers with a*b = a+b+2 is
group .
Ans:
1. * is closed operation
2. Associativity
a. a*(b*c) = a*(b+c+2) = a+b+c+4
And (a*b) *c = a+b+c+4 Semigroup <R,*>
c. Identity element is -2
As a*e= a
a+e+2=a
So e = -2. Monoid<R,*,-2>
d. Inverse Element
a*a-1=e here
e= -2 so a-1 = -(4+a)
Hence it is Group.
e. Commutative a*b=b*a so Abelian Group.
 Example :
3. Prove that G={1,-1,i,-i} (fourth roots of unity) is an abelian Group
with respect to multiplication.
Ans: Prepare composition table.

i) Closure property;- Since all the entries of the composition table are
the elements of given set, the set G is closed under multiplication.
ii) Associativity : - The element of G are complex numbers and we
know that multiplication of complex numbers is associative.
iii) Identity e :- Here, 1 is the identity element.
iv) Inverse:- From the composition table, we see that inverse elements
of 1,-1, i, -i are 1 , -1, -i, i respectively.
v) Commutativity:- Along main diagonal it is symmetric, the binary
operation is commutative. Hence, (G,∗) is an finite abelian group.
Example
• (Z, +), (Q, +), (R, +), (C, +) are some examples of Abelian
Group

• Let G be the non-singular matrices over real numbers and let *

be the matrix multiplication operator then which of the
following statement is true?
A. G is closed under * but (G, *) is not a semigroup
B. (G, *) is a semigroup but not a monoid
C. (G, *) is a monoid but not a group
D. (G, *) is a group but not an abelian group (Correct)
Example
The set of positive integers (including zero) with addition operation is an
abelian group. G={0,1,2,3,…}
Here closure property holds as for every pair
(a,b)∈ S,(a+b)(a,b)∈ S, (a+b). [For example, 1+2=2∈S1+2=2∈S and so on]

Associative property also holds for every element

a,b,c ∈ S, (a+b)+c= a+(b+c) a,b,c ∈ S, (a+b)+c = a+(b+c)
[For example, (1+2)+3= 1+(2+3)= 6(1+2)+3=1+(2+3) =6 …]

Identity property also holds for every element

a∈ S,(a×e)=a a∈ S,(a×e)=a
[For example, (2×1)=2,(3×1)=3(2×1)=2,(3×1)=3 …].

Here, identity element is 1.

Commutative property also holds for every element

a∈ S,(a×b)=(b×a) a ∈ S, (a×b)=(b×a)
So, it is Abelian Group
 Cyclic Group
• A cyclic group is a group that can be generated by a single element.
• Every element of a cyclic group is a power of some specific element
which is called a generator.
• A cyclic group can be generated by a generator ‘g’, such that every
other element of the group can be written as a power of the
generator ‘g’.
Example:
The set of complex numbers {1,−1, i, −i} under multiplication
operation is a cyclic group.
There are two generators i and -i
i as i1=i, i2=−1, i3=−i, i4=1
and also (–i)1=−i, (–i)2=−1, (–i)3=i, (–i)4=1 which covers all the
elements of the group. Hence, it is a cyclic group.
Note − A cyclic group is always an abelian group but not every
abelian group is a cyclic group.
**The rational numbers under addition is not cyclic but is abelian.
 Examples :
2. Let G={1,2,3,...,6} Prepare multiplication table w.r.t.
Multiplication modulo 7.find inverse of 3,4,6. Is it cyclic?
Ans: 1. It is closed operation
×7 1 2 3 4 5 6 2. Associative
3. Identity element is 1
1 1 2 3 4 5 6
4. Inverse is present for all elements.
2 2 4 6 1 3 5
Inverse of 3 =5
3 3 6 2 5 1 4 Inverse of 4 = 2
4 4 1 5 2 6 3 Inverse of 6 = 6
5 5 3 1 6 4 2 5. it is commutative
6 6 5 4 3 2 1 6. 31= 3
32= 3 ×7 3 = 2
Rreminder 0f (a*b/7)
33= 3 ×7 3 ×7 3 =6
34= 4
35= 5
36= 1
3 is the generator of cycle
Examples :
2. Let G={1,2,3,4,5} Prepare multiplication table w.r.t.
Multiplication modulo 6.is it a group?
Ans:

º 1 2 3 4 5
1. It is not a closed operation
2. Not a semigroup, monoid,
1 1 2 3 4 5 group

2 2 4 0 2 4

3 3 0 3 0 3

4 4 2 0 4 2

5 5 4 3 2 1
Theorem:
Let G be a group. Each element a in G has only one
inverse in G.

Proof:
Let a’ and a’’ be two inverse of a.
So, a*a’ = e & a*a’’ = e
And Using associative property,

a’ *(a*a’’) = (a’ * a)* a’’

a’ * e = e*a’’

Hence, a’ = a’’ is the only one inverse.

 Subsemigroup and Submonoid :
Let (S , *) be a semigroup with T as its subset. If T is closed under the
operation *.
(if a, b ε T , then a*b ε T) then T is called a subsemigroup.
By similar logic,
a subset T of a monoid (M, *) such that identity element belongs to it
and the set is closed under * is said to be submonoid (T, *).

Example:
1. If T be the set of all even integers then (T, +) is a subsemigroup
of (Z,+). It is also a submonoid (identity element e = 0)
2. If T be the set of all even integers then (T, ×) where × is
ordinary multiplication is a subsemigroup of (Z, ×). but
It is not a submonoid (identity element e = 1) is not present in T
 Free Semigroup generated by A

Let A={a1,a2,a3,a4,....,an} then

A* is the set of finite sequences of elements A.

(A*, .) is semigroup known as free semigroup generated by A.

If α, β and γ are any elements of A*, then α.(β. γ)=( α.β).γ

Here . is a concatenation operation, which is an associative
operation as shown above.
Let α = abcd, β = sgh, γ = ppppp
Then α.(β. γ)=( α.β).γ
Hence Proved
ISOMORPHISM:

Let (S,*) and (T,*’) be two semigroups.A function f:S → T

is called an isomorphism from (S,*) to (T,*') if it a one-to-one
correspondance from S→T and if
f(a*b) = f(a) *’ f(b)
for all a and b in S We write S ~ T.

How to show that two semigroups are isomorphic

1.Define a function f:S→T with Dom(f)=S
2.Show that f is one-to-one
3.Show that f is onto
4.Show that f(a*b)=f(a)*'f(b)

HOMOMORPHISM: f(a*b)=f(a)*'f(b)
EPIMORPHISM: (Surjective)
MONOMORPHISM: (Injective Homomorphism)
ENDOMORPHISM: (function on itself)
AUTOMORPHISM: (function on itself and isomorphism)
ISOMORPHISM STEPS:
Question:-Show that (Z,+) and (T,+) are isomorphic. Where
T is a set of even number.
Solution:-Steps:

1. We define the function f:Z→T by f(a)=2a

2. Let f(a)=f(a')
then 2a=2a' using definition of function.
a=a'
Hence f is one-to-one

3. Suppose b is any even integer .

Then a=b/2 where a Ɛ Z

and f(a)= f(b/2)= 2(b/2) = b so f is onto

4. f(a+b) = 2(a+b) = 2a+2b = f(a)+f(b)

 Examples :
1. Let A={0,1} and consider the semigroup<A,+>and <A,∙>where
∙ Is concatenation operation and + is defined as
Define the function f:A*→ A
+ 0 1 By f(a)= 1 if a has odd no. Of 1's
= 0 if a has even no. Of 1's

0 0 1

1 1 0
Ans:
If a and b are any 2 elements of A* then
f(a∙b)= f(a)+f(b) which is true here so Homomorphism.
Now range of f is {0,1} the function is onTo

But it is not one to one So not isomorphism.

Theorem:-
Let (S,*) and (T,*’) be monoid with identity e and e’
respectively if f:S→T be an isomorphism then f(e)=e’

Proof:- Let a ε A and b ε B

a=a*e and
b=b*e’ since e and e’ are an identity and
b=f(a)

=f(a*e)

=f(a)*’f(e) from onto

=b*’f(e) Using Definition of identity

Therefore f(e)=e’
 Product and Quotients of Semigroups
If (S,*) and (T, *’) are semigroups then
(S × T, *’’) is semigroup is defined by
(s1,t1) *’’ (s2,t2) = (s1 * s2, t1 *’ t2).

For Monoid if S and T are monoids with identities eS and eT.

Then S × T has identity(eS, eT).
Equivalence relation and Semigroups, Natural Homomorphism
A equivalence relation R on semigroup (S, *) is called a congruence
relation If
a R a’ and b R b’ imply (a * b) R (a’ * b’ ).

Equivalence relation R on semigroup (S, *) determines a partition of S.

So, Let [a] =R(a) and S/R with binary operation *'' denote the set of all
equivalence classes.
It is called quotient semigroup or factor semigroup.
Examples :
1. Let A={0,1} and consider the free semigroup(A*, ∙) generated by A.
Define Relation R on A as a R b iff a and b have the same number of
ones. Show that R is Congruence Relation.
Ans:
1. R is equivalence relation.
2. a Ra' and bRb' imply (a*b) R (a'*b')

R is reflexive, R is symmetric, R is transitive So R is Equivalence.

aRa' imply a and a' has same number of ones
bRb' also.
a ∙ b is number of ones in a + number of ones in b
a' ∙ b' is number of ones in a' + number of ones in b'
Which is same
Therefore, (a*b) R (a'*b’)
and R is congruent Relation.
Theorem:
Let R be a congruence relation on the semigroup (S,*).
Consider the relation *''
From S/R X S/R to S/R in which the ordered pair ([a],[b])
is, for a and b in S related to [a*b]
a. *'' is a function from S/R X S/R to S/R and as usual we
denote *([a],[b])
By [a] * [b] Thus [a] * [b] = [a*b]
b. (S/R, *'') is a semigroup.
 Example
Consider S={a,b,c,d} with the following operation table, and the
congruent relation R={(a,a),(a,b),(b,a),(b,b),(c,c),(c,d),(d,c),(d,d)}
a. Write the operation table of quotient semigroup.
b. Describe the natural homomorphism.
Ans:
* a b c d
S/R ={ [a],[b],[c],[d] }
[a]= {a,b} = [b]
[c]= {c,d} = [d] a a b c d
Hence S/R = { [a],[c] }
Now operation table: b b a d c
[a] *' [a] = [a*a] =[a] and [a] *' [c] = [a*c] =[c]
c c d a b

*' [a] [c]

d d c b a

[a] [a] [c]

Natural Homomorphism is f from S to S/R as
f(a) =[a], f(b) = [b], f(c) = [c], f(d) = [d]
[c] [c] [a]
Example
Consider S=Z under the operation of ordinary addition a R b iff a Ξ
b(mod3)
a. Describe the quotient semigroup for S and R.

S = {...., -8,-7,---,0,1,2,3,---,7,8,---}
⊕ [0]R = {...., -6,-3,0,3,6,---} = [3]R
[0] [1] [2]
[1]R = {...., -5,-2, 1,4,7,---} = [4]R
[2]R = {...., -4,-1,2,5,8,---} = [5]R

[0] [0] [1] [2]

Hence S/R ={ [0]R,[1] R,[2] R }

[1] [1] [2] [0] [0] ⊕ [0] = [0+0] =[0]

[1] ⊕ [1] = [1+1] =[2]

[2] [2] [0] [1]

Example
Consider S={e, a,b,c} with the following operation table, and the
congruent relation R={(e,a),(a,e),(a,a),(b,b),(b,c),(c,b),(c,c),(e,e)}
a. Write the operation table of quotient semigroup.
b. Describe the natural homomorphism.
* e a b c

e E a b c

a a e b c

b b c b e

c c b b c
Ans:
 Subgroup
We define a subgroup G0 as a subalgebra of G which is itself a group.
A subgroup H is a subset of a group G (denoted by H≤G)
if it satisfies the four properties simultaneously
− Closure, Associative, Identity element, and Inverse.

A subgroup H of a group G that does not include the whole group G

is called a proper subgroup
(Denoted by H<G).

A subgroup of a cyclic group is cyclic and a abelian subgroup is also

abelian.

Example:
Let a group G={1, i, −1, −i}
Then some subgroups are H1= {1}, H2 = {1,−1}
This is not a subgroup H3={1,i} because that (i)−1=−i is not in H3
Theorem:

• Every group G is a subgroup of itself.

• If e is the identity element of G then({e},*) is also

subgroup of G.

• (G,*) and ({e},*) are called improper or trivial

subgroup and
• other subgroups are called proper or nontrivial
subgroup.
 Order of a Group
Let G is a Group and has a finite number of elements then the order of G is
the number of elements in G.i.e. mod(G).
Each element a in G has only one inverse in G.
Order of an element in a Group
Let g ε G is a Group then a smallest positive integer n such that gn = e where e is
a identity element represented by O(g).
Example let G ={1,-1,i,-i} be a group with identity element 1
Then for element -1, we have (-1)2 = 1 So O(-1) = 2.
Left and right cosets
Let H be a subgroup of a group<G,*> and a ε G then,
The set {a* h | h ε H } called left coset aH
Which is equivalence to [a] equivalence class.
And Ha = The set {h* a | h ε H } called right coset
And a is called representative of aH and Ha.
Normal subgroup
A subgroup H of G is called normal subgroup if aH =Ha for all a in
G.
Index of a subgroup in a group

If H is a subgroup of a group G then the number of distinct

right[left] cosets of H in G is called the index of H in G. and is
denoted by [G: H]

Factor or Quotients of Group

Let H is a normal subgroup of G then the set of distinct left or
right cosets is called the quotient Group and represented by G/H.
Example:
1. Let a group G={1,i,−1,−i} and H= {1,-1} find the quotient group(G/H)
Ans:
H= {1,-1} is subset of G. . 1 -1
Now check <H,.> is a group.
1.H is closed under . Operation 1 1 -1
2. Is associative
3.Identity element is 1
4.There exist inverse. Hence it is subgroup - - 1
1 1
Left coset Right coset
1.H = 1.{1,-1} = {1,-1} H.1 = 1.{1,-1} = {1,-1} = H Left coset = Right coset
=H H.-1 = {-1,1} = H Is a normal subgroup
-1.H = {-1,1} = H H.i = {i, -i}
i.H = {i, -i} H.-i = {-i,i}
-i.H = {-i,i}
Distinct Left cosets are H and iH Hence G/H ={H,iH} . H iH
={{1,-1}, {i,-i}} Here index is 2 of subgroup
Also G/H is a group.
H H iH
As H.H = {1,-1}.{1,-1}
= {1.1, 1.-1, -1.1, -1,-1}
= {1,-1.-1,1} = H iH iH H
 Example:
2. Let Z be a group of integer under addition operation and H is
subset of Z as H consist of multiple of 5. show that h is normal
subgroup of Z also find the quotient group(Z/H). Is Z/H is a group?
Ans: Z = {...,-2,-1,0,1,2,...} and H ={...,-10,-5,0,5,10,...}
it is subgroup 1+H 2+H 3+H 4+H
Left coset + H
0+H = ={...,-10,-5,0,5,10,...} = 5+ H
1+H 2+H 3+H 4+H
1+H = ={...,-9,-4,1,6,...} =6+ H H H
2+H = ={...,-8,-3,2,7,...} =7 + H
1+H 1+H 2+H 3+H 4+H
3+H = ={...,-7,-2,3,8,...} = 8 + H H
4+H ={...,-6,-1,4,9,...} = 9 +H
2+H 2+H 3+H 4+H 1+H
H
Left coset = Right coset
3+H 3+H 4+H 1+H 2+H
Is a normal subgroup H
4+H 4+H 1+H 2+H 3+H
Here 5 Distinct Left cosets H
G/H ={H, 1+H, 2+H, 3+H, 4+H}
Now find Z/H is a group?
RING, Field, Integral Domain
Let ⊗ be another binary function defined on A.
1. <A, ⊕, ⊗> is a Ring if :
(i) <A, ⊕ > is an abelian group
(ii) ⊗ is associative: (a⊗b)⊗c = a⊗(b⊗c)
(iii) ⊗ is distributive over ⊕
a⊗(b⊕c) = (a⊗b)⊕(a⊗c), Left And Right distributive
(a⊕b)⊗c = (a⊗c)⊕(b⊗c)

2. The ring <A, ⊕, ⊗> is a field if <A, ⊕> and

<A-{ο}, ⊗> are both abelian groups, the latter
with identity element, where ο ≠ ι.
Example:

1.(Z,+,*) is a ring where + is addition and * is multiplication.

it is commutative Ring with unity element 1.

2.The set of M ×N matrices over the real numbers is a

noncommutative Ring....
3. (Zp, +, *) where p is a prime number is Ring, Field, Integral
domain
Example: Show that {0,1,2,3,4} is a ring w.r.t. Addition and multiplication mod 5
Ans: 0 1 2 3 4
+5 0 1 2 3 4 ×5

0 0 1 2 3 4 0 0 0 0 0 0

1 0 1 2 3 4
1 1 2 3 4 0

2 0 2 4 1 3
2 2 3 4 0 1

3 3 4 0 1 2 3 0 3 1 4 2

4 4 0 1 2 3 4 0 4 3 2 1

Show that (Z, +5) is an abelian group 6. ×5 is associative

1.+5 is closed operation 7. Now show that ×5 is distributive over +5
2.+5 is associative i.e. a ×5 (b +5 c) = (a ×5 b) +5 (a ×5 c) let
3.0 is the identity element a = 4, b= 2 and c = 3
4.Every element has left inverse
5.+5 is abelian group Hence proved.
Field and Integral Domain
A commutative ring with unity element in which there are no zero
divisors is called integral Domain.
Let R be a commutative ring with unity element. If every nonzero
element has a multiplicative inverse, then r is called a field.
1.Ring is commutative
2.It has unity element
3.Every nonzero element has multiplicative inverse.
Example (x, y)*(p, q)=(x . p, y . q) Then
(a,0)*(0,b)=(0,0) Is not Integral Domain
Ring Homomorphism:
Let (A,+,*) and(B, ⊕, ⊗) be two algebraic systems . An onto
function f from
(A,+,*) to (B, ⊕, ⊗) if for any a and b in A,
f(a+b) = f(a) ⊕ f(b)
f(a * b) = f(a) ⊗ f(b)
• Show that Z4 is not a field.
 TUTORIAL
1. Define Homomorphism, Isomorphism, Automorphism,
Endomorphism, Monomorphism on Algebraic structure.
2. Is the algebraic structure a Ring if S = {a + b√2, a, b ∈ Z}, where +
and ∗ are ordinary addition and multiplication.
3. How does a field differ from a ring?
4. Prove that the set of complex numbers {1,−1,i,−i} under
multiplication operation is a cyclic group. Find the generators of
cycle.
5. Show that (Z,+,*) is a ring where + is addition and * is
multiplication is commutative Ring with unity element 1.
6. Let G be the group of integers under the operation of addition,
and let H = {3k | k ∈ Z}. Is H a subgroup of G?