Unit-1

Computer Networks
Prepared by
P.SANTHOSH KUMAR & K. Vinod Kumar
Assistant Professor
 Introduction to Computer Networks
NETWORKS
A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes) connected by communication
links. A node can be a computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending
and/or receiving data generated by other nodes on the network.
Mesh Topology
Star Topology
Types of Computer Networks
 1. Personal Area Network (PAN)
 PAN is the most basic type of computer network. This network is restrained to
a single person, that is, communication between the computer devices is
centered only on an individual’s workspace.
 PAN offers a network range of 1 to 100 meters from person to device providing
communication. Its transmission speed is very high with very easy
maintenance and very low cost.
 This uses Bluetooth, IrDA, and Zigbee as technology. Examples of PAN are
USB, computer, phone, tablet, printer, PDA, etc.

Types of PAN
 Wireless Personal Area Networks: Wireless Personal Area Networks are
created by simply utilizing wireless technologies such as Wi-Fi and Bluetooth.
It is a low-range network.
 Wired Personal Area Network: A wired personal area network is constructed
using a USB.
Local Area Network (LAN)
 LAN is the most frequently used network. A LAN is a computer network that
connects computers through a common communication path, contained within a
limited area, that is, locally.
 A LAN encompasses two or more computers connected over a server. The two
important technologies involved in this network are Ethernet and Wi-fi.
 It ranges up to 2km & transmission speed is very high with easy maintenance and
low cost. Examples of LAN are networking in a home, school, library, laboratory,
college, office, etc.
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
 A MAN is larger than a LAN but smaller than a WAN. This is the type of computer
network that connects computers over a geographical distance through a shared
communication path over a city, town, or metropolitan area.
 This network mainly uses FDDI, CDDI, and ATM as the technology with a range
from 5km to 50km. Its transmission speed is average.
 It is difficult to maintain and it comes with a high cost. Examples of MAN are
networking in towns, cities, a single large city, a large area within multiple buildings,
etc.
Wide Area Network (WAN)
 WAN is a type of computer network that connects computers over a
large geographical distance through a shared communication path.
 It is not restrained to a single location but extends over many
locations.
 WAN can also be defined as a group of local area networks that
communicate with each other with a range above 50km.
 Here we use Leased-Line & Dial-up technology. Its transmission speed
is very low and it comes with very high maintenance and very high cost.
 The most common example of WAN is the Internet.
Introduction to ISO-OSI Model

 There are many users who use computer networks and are located all
over the world.
 To ensure national and worldwide data communication ISO (ISO
stands for International Organization of Standardization.) developed
this model.
 This is called a model for open system interconnection (OSI) and is
normally called an OSI model.
 OSI model architecture consists of seven layers. It defines seven layers
or levels in a complete communication system.
 These seven layers are interconnected to each other.
The Physical Layer
 The Physical Layer is the first layer of the OSI model. This layer specifies
the standards for devices, media, and technologies that are used in
moving the data across the network such as:-

 Type of cable used in connecting the devices

 Patterns of pins used in both sides of the cable
 Type of interface-card used in the networking device
 Type of connector used to connect the cable with the network interface
 Encoding of digital signals received from the Data Link layer based on the
attached media type such as electrical for copper, light for fiber, or a radio
wave for wireless.
 On the sending computer, it converts digital signals received from the
Data Link layer, into analog signals and loads them on the physical media.
 On the receiving computer, it picks analog signals from the media and
converts them into digital signals, and transfers them to the Data Link
layer for further processing.
The Data Link Layer
 The Data Link Layer is the second layer of the OSI model. This layer defines how
networking components access the media and what transmission methods they use.
This layer has two sub-layers: MAC and LLC.
MAC (Media Access Control)
 This sub-layer defines how the data packets are placed in media. It also provides
physical addressing.
 The physical address is known as the MAC address.
 Unlike logical addresses that need to be configured, physical addresses are pre-
configured in NIC.
 The MAC address is used to uniquely identify a host in the local network.
LLC (Logical Link Control)
 This sub-layer identifies the network layer protocol.
 On the sending computer, it encapsulates the information of the Network Layer
protocol in the LLC header from which the Data Link layer receives the data packet.
 On the receiving computer, it checks the LLC header to get the information about the
network layer protocol.
 This way, a data packet is always delivered to the same network layer protocol from
which it was sent.
The Network Layer
 The third layer of the OSI model is the Network Layer.
 This layer takes the data segment from the Transport layer and adds a
logical address to it.
 A logical address has two components; network partition and host
partition.
 The Network partition is used to group networking components while the
host partition is used to uniquely identify a system on the network.
 A logical address is known as the IP address.
 Once the logical address and other related information are added to
the segment, it becomes the packet.
 To move data packets between two different networks, a device known as
the router is used.
 Routers use the logical address to make the routing decision.
 Routing is the process of forwarding data packets to their destination.
The Transport Layer
 The transport layer is the fourth layer of the OSI model. It provides the following
functionalities: -
Segmentation
 On the sending computer, it breaks the data stream into smaller pieces. Each piece is
known as a segment and the process of breaking the data stream into smaller pieces is
known as the segmentation. On the receiving computer, it joins all segments to
recreate the original data stream.
Data transportation
 This layer establishes a logical connection between the sending system and receiving
system and uses that connection to provide end-to-end data transportation. This
process uses two protocols: TCP and UDP.
 The TCP protocol is used for reliable data transportation. TCP is a connection-oriented
protocol.
 UDP protocol is used for unreliable data transportation. UDP is a connection-less
protocol.
 The main difference between a connection-less and connection-oriented protocol is that a
connection-oriented protocol provides reliable data delivery. For reliable data delivery, it
uses several mechanisms such as the three-way handshake process, acknowledgments,
sequencing, and flow control.
The Session Layer

 The session layer is the fifth layer of the OSI model.

 It is responsible for setting up, managing, and dismantling sessions between
presentation layer entities and providing dialogs between computers.
 When an application makes a network request, this layer checks whether the
requested resource is available on the local system or on a remote system.
 If the requested resource is available on a remote system, it tests whether a network
connection to access that resource is available or not.
 If a network connection is not available, it sends an error message back to the
application informing that the connection is not available.
 If a network connection is available, it establishes a session with the remote system.
For each request, it uses a separate session.
 This allows multiple applications to send or receive data simultaneously. When data
transmission is completed, it terminates the session.
 The session layer is responsible for establishing, managing, and terminating
communications between two computers. RPCs and NFS are examples of the
session layer.
The Presentation Layer
 The sixth layer of the OSI model is the Presentation layer.
 Applications running on the local system may or may not understand the
format that is used to transmit the data over the network.
 The presentation layer works as a translator. When receiving data from the
Application layer, it converts that data in such a format that can be sent over
the network.
 When receiving data from the Session layer, it reconverts the data in such a
format that the application, which will use it, can understand.
Conversion, compression, and encryption are the main functions that
the Presentation layer performs on the sending computer while on
the receiving computer these functions are reconversion,
decompression, and decryption.
 ASCII, BMP, GIF, JPEG, WAV, AVI, and MPEG are examples of
standards and protocols that work in this layer.
Application Layer
 At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack of layers, we find the Application
layer which is implemented by the network applications.
 These applications produce the data to be transferred over the network.
 This layer also serves as a window for the application services to access the
network and for displaying the received information to the user.
 Example: Application – Browsers, Skype Messenger, etc.
 Note: The application Layer is also called Desktop Layer.
 Device or Protocol Use : SMTP.
 Functions of the Application Layer
 The main functions of the application layer are given below.
 Network Virtual Terminal(NVT): It allows a user to log on to a remote host.
 File Transfer Access and Management(FTAM): This application allows a user to
access files in a remote host, retrieve files in a remote host, and manage or
control files from a remote computer.
 Mail Services: Provide email service.
 Directory Services: This application provides distributed database sources
and access for global information about various objects and services.
Transmission Media

Transmission media in computer networks is also

known as communication channels that are used to
send information from a source or transmitter to a
receiver.
It is a physical way for electromagnetic signals to
transport data. With LAN, information is transmitted
in the form of bits.
 The transmission media in computer networks can
moderate the transmission of telecommunications
signals.
 Unit-II
Data Link Layer
Data Link Layer Design Issues
The data link layer in the OSI (Open System
Interconnections) Model, is in between the physical
layer and the network layer. This layer converts the raw
transmission facility provided by the physical layer to a
reliable and error-free link.
The main functions and the design issues of this layer
are
Providing services to the network layer
Framing
Error Control
Flow Control
Error Control
When bits are transmitted over the computer network,
they are subject to get corrupted due to interference and
network problems.
Error control in data link layer is the process of detecting
and correcting data frames that have been corrupted or
lost during transmission.
In case of lost or corrupted frames, the receiver does not
receive the correct data-frame and sender is ignorant
about the loss.
 Data link layer follows a technique to detect transit errors
and take necessary actions, which is retransmission of
frames whenever error is detected or frame is lost. The
process is called Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ).