Building Java Programs

Chapter 13:
Searching and Sorting

Copyright 2006 by Pearson Education 1

 Chapter outline
 Searching and sorting in the Java class libraries
 sequential and binary search
 sorting
 shuffling
 custom ordering with Comparators

 Program efficiency
 algorithm analysis
 complexity classes and Big-Oh notation

 Implementing searching and sorting algorithms

 binary search
 selection sort
 merge sort
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 Searching and sorting in
the Java class libraries
reading: 13.1

Copyright 2006 by Pearson Education 3

 Sequential search
 Imagine searching for a particular word in an ArrayList
of words from a book:
int index = words.indexOf(word);
if (index >= 0) {
System.out.println(word + " is word #" + index);
} else {
System.out.println(word + " is not found.");
}

 sequential search: One that examines each element

of a list in sequence until it finds the target value or
reaches the end of the list.
 The indexOf method above uses a sequential search.
index 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 ...
value It was the best of times it ...

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 Binary search algorithm
 binary search: An algorithm that searches for a value
in a sorted list by repeatedly eliminating half the list
from consideration.
 Can be written iteratively or recursively
 implemented in Java as method Arrays.binarySearch in
java.util package

 Algorithm pseudocode (searching for a value K):

 Start out with the search area being from indexes 0 to length-1.
 Examine the element in the middle of the search area.
 If it is K, stop.
 Otherwise,
 If it is smaller than K, eliminate the upper half of the search area.
 If it is larger than K, eliminate the lower half of the search area.
 Repeat the above examination.

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 Binary search example

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 Using binarySearch
 Java provides two binary search methods:
 Arrays.binarySearch (for an array)
// binary search on an array:
int[] numbers = {-3, 2, 8, 12, 17, 29, 44, 58, 79};
int index = Arrays.binarySearch(numbers, 29);
System.out.println("29 is found at index " + index);

 Collections.binarySearch (for a List)

// binary search on ArrayList with the same values:
int index = Collections.binarySearch(list, 29);
System.out.println("29 is found at index " + index);

 Note that the values in the array / list are in sorted order.
 If they are not, binarySearch is not guaranteed to work
properly.

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 Sorting
 sorting: Rearranging the values in a list into a given
order (often into their natural ascending order).
 One of the fundamental problems in computer science
 Many sorts are comparison-based (must determine order
through comparison operations on the input data)
<, >, compareTo, …

index 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
value 15 2 8 1 17 10 12 5

index 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
value 1 2 5 8 10 12 15 17

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 Sorting in the class libraries
 Java provides two sorting methods:
 Arrays.sort (for an array)
// demonstrate the Arrays.sort method
String[] strings = {"c", "b", "g", "h", "d", "f", "e", "a"};
System.out.println(Arrays.toString(strings));
Arrays.sort(strings);
System.out.println(Arrays.toString(strings));
 Output:
[c, b, g, h, d, f, e, a]
[a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h]

 Collections.sort (for a List)

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 Shuffling
 shuffling: Rearranging the elements of a list into a random order.
 Java has a shuffle method for a List, Collections.shuffle:
String[] ranks = {"2", "3", "4", "5", "6", "7", "8", "9",
"10", "Jack", "Queen", "King", "Ace"};
String[] suits = {"Clubs", "Diamonds", "Hearts", "Spades"};
ArrayList<String> deck = new ArrayList<String>();
for (String rank : ranks) { // build sorted deck
for (String suit : suits) {
deck.add(rank + " of " + suit);
}
}
Collections.shuffle(deck);
System.out.println("Top card = " + deck.get(0));
 Output (for one example run):
Top card = 10 of Spades

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 Custom ordering with
Comparators
reading: 13.1

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 Custom ordering
 Sometimes, the default ordering is not what you want.
 Example: The following code sorts the strings in a case-
sensitive order, so the uppercase letters come first.
We may have wanted a case-insensitive ordering instead.
String[] strings = {"Foxtrot", "alpha", "echo", "golf",
"bravo", "hotel", "Charlie", "DELTA"};
Arrays.sort(strings);
System.out.println(Arrays.toString(strings));

 Output:
[Charlie, DELTA, Foxtrot, alpha, bravo, echo, golf, hotel]

 You can describe a custom sort ordering by creating a

class called a comparator.

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 Comparators
 The Comparator interface in java.util describes a
method for comparing two objects of a given type:
public interface Comparator<T> {
public int compare(T o1, T o2);
}
 Note that Comparator is a generic interface.
 T will be replaced by the type of object you are actually comparing.

 The compare method's job is to decide the relative ordering of

the two given objects and return an appropriate integer:
 <0 if o1 comes before o2,
 0 if o1 and o2 are equivalent,
 >0 if o1 comes after o2.

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 Comparator example
 The following Comparator compares Strings, ignoring case:
public class CaseInsensitiveComparator
implements Comparator<String> {

public int compare(String s1, String s2) {

return s1.toLowerCase().compareTo(
s2.toLowerCase());
}
}

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 Sorting with Comparators
 The sorting methods shown previously can also be
called with a Comparator as a second parameter.
 The sorting algorithm will use that comparator to order the
elements of the array or list.
String[] strings = {"Foxtrot", "alpha", "echo", "golf",
"bravo", "hotel", "Charlie", "DELTA"};
Arrays.sort(strings, new CaseInsensitiveComparator());
System.out.println(Arrays.toString(strings));
[Charlie, DELTA, Foxtrot, alpha, bravo, echo, golf, hotel]

 Output:
[alpha, bravo, Charlie, DELTA, echo, Foxtrot, golf, hotel]

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 Program efficiency

reading: 13.2

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 Efficiency
 efficiency: A measure of the computing resources used
by a program, such as time, memory, or disk space.

 time efficiency: How quickly a program runs

 "Fast enough" is often relative to the task being performed.
 5 minutes to render a complex 3D scene for a movie is fast.
 5 minutes to search Google is slow.

 Ways to measure the efficiency of a program:

 empirical analysis: Program the algorithm, run it, and time it.
 algorithm analysis: Applying techniques to mathematically
estimate the algorithm's runtime without actually coding it.

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 Rules for algorithm analysis
 Most individual statements take 1 unit of time to run.
 When multiple statements are executed sequentially,
their runtimes are added.

 When statements are executed in a loop, the runtime is

multiplied by the number of repetitions of the loop.

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 More examples
 Larger statements can also occur sequentially, in which
case their runtimes are added.
 If larger statements are nested, their runtimes are
multiplied.

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 Relative rates of growth
 most algorithms' runtime can be expressed as a
function of the input size N

 rate of growth: measure of how quickly the graph of a

function rises

 goal: distinguish between fast- and slow-growing

functions
 we only care about very large input sizes
(for small sizes, most any algorithm is fast enough)
 this helps us discover which algorithms will run more quickly or
slowly, for large input sizes

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 Growth rate example
Consider these graphs of functions.
Perhaps each one represents an algorithm:
n3 + 2n2
100n2 + 1000

• Which grows
faster?

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 Growth rate example
• How about now?

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 Range algorithm 1
 Let's examine the efficiency and growth rate of three
algorithms for finding the range (difference between
largest and smallest element) in an array.
 First algorithm (looks at all pairs of values to find which
pair is the largest and smallest):
// returns the range of numbers in the given array
public static int range(int[] numbers) {
int maxDiff = 0;
for (int i = 0; i < numbers.length; i++) {
for (int j = 0; j < numbers.length; j++) {
int diff = Math.abs(numbers[j] - numbers[i]);
maxDiff = Math.max(maxDiff, diff);
}
}
return maxDiff;
}

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 Runtime of range 1

 Observation: runtime seems to roughly quadruple when

input size is doubled

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 Range algorithm 2
 The first algorithm redundantly makes each comparison
twice (when i <= j, when i > j).
 Second, improved algorithm:
public static int range2(int[] numbers) {
int maxDiff = 0;
for (int i = 0; i < numbers.length; i++) {
for (int j = i + 1; j < numbers.length; j++) {
int diff = Math.abs(numbers[j] - numbers[i]);
maxDiff = Math.max(maxDiff, diff);
}
}
return maxDiff;
}

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 Runtime of range 2

 Observation: about twice as fast; same growth pattern

 (runtime quadruples when input size is doubled)

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 Range algorithm 3
 We can discover the largest and smallest values in a
single pass over the array, rather than using many
nested passes over all values.
 Third algorithm:
public static int range3(int[] numbers) {
int max = numbers[0];
int min = max;
for (int i = 1; i < numbers.length; i++) {
if (numbers[i] > max) {
max = numbers[i];
} else if (numbers[i] < min) {
min = numbers[i];
}
}
return max - min;
}

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 Runtime of range 3

 Much faster than others

 Runtime doubles when
input size doubles
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 Complexity classes and
Big-oh notation
reading: 13.2

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 Big-Oh notation
 complexity class: Category of algorithms' runtime
based on relationship to input size.
 Determined by the exponent of the most frequently executed
line of code in the algorithm.

 big-Oh notation: A shorthand for describing

complexity classes.
 Example: If the most frequently executed line of an algorithm
runs approximately N3 times, we say the algorithm is "order N3"
or O(N3) for short.

 We are concerned with how the function grows when N is large.

We are not picky about constant factors.

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 Hierarchy of Big-Oh
 Complexity classes in increasing order of growth:
 constant time O(1)
 logarithmic O(log N)
 linear O(N)
 loglinear O(N log N)
 quadratic O(N2)
 cubic O(N3)
...
 exponential O(2N)
 ...

 An algorithm from a lower complexity class will run much faster

than one from a higher complexity class when the value of N
becomes very large.

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 Program loop runtimes
for (int i = 0; i < N; i += c) // O(N)
<statements>;
 Adding to the loop counter means that the loop runtime grows linearly
when compared to its maximum value N.
 Loop executes its body exactly N / c times.

for (int i = 0; i < N; i *= c) // O(log N)

<statements>;
 Multiplying the loop counter means that the maximum value N must grow
exponentially to linearly increase the loop runtime; therefore, it is
logarithmic.
 Loop executes its body exactly logc N times.

for (int i = 0; i < N * N; i += c) // O(N2)

<statements>;
 The loop maximum is N2, so the runtime is quadratic.
 Loop executes its body exactly (N2 / c) times.

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 More loop runtimes
 Nesting loops multiplies their runtimes.
for (int i = 0; i < N; i += c) { // O(N2)
for (int j = 0; j < N; i += c) {
<statements>;
}
}

 Loops in sequence add together their runtimes, which

means the loop set with the larger runtime dominates.
for (int i = 0; i < N; i += c) { // O(N)
<statements>;
}
for (int i = 0; i < N; i += c) { // O(N log N)
for (int j = 0; j < N; i *= c) {
<statements>;
}
}

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 Loop runtime problems
 Approximate the value of the variable sum after the
following code fragment, as an expression in terms of
input size n. Use Big-Oh notation to describe the
algorithm's overall runtime.
int sum = 0;
for (int i = 1; i <= N; i *= 2) {
sum++;
}

for (int i = 1; i <= 1000; i++) {

sum++;
sum++;
}

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 Loop runtime problems
 Approximate the value of the variable sum after the
following code fragment, as an expression in terms of
input size n. Use Big-Oh notation to describe the
algorithm's overall runtime.
int sum = 0;
for (int i = 1; i <= N; i++) {
for (int j = 1; j <= i / 2; j += 2) {
sum++;
}
}

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 Implementing binary
search
reading: 13.3

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 Recall: binary search
 binary search: An algorithm that searches for a value
in a sorted list by repeatedly eliminating half the list
from consideration.
 Can be written iteratively or recursively

 Algorithm pseudocode (searching for a value K):

 Start out with the search area being from indexes 0 to length-1.
 Examine the element in the middle of the search area.
 If it is K, stop.
 Otherwise,
 If it is smaller than K, eliminate the upper half of the search area.
 If it is larger than K, eliminate the lower half of the search area.
 Repeat the above examination.

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 Binary search example

searching for value 16

0 4 min
1 7

2 16

3 20 mid (too big!)

4 37

5 38

6 43 max

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 Binary search example

searching for value 16

0 4 min
1 7 mid (too small!)
2 16 max
3 20

4 37

5 38

6 43

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 Binary search example

searching for value 16

0 4

1 7

2 16 min, mid, max (found it!)

3 20

4 37

5 38

6 43

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 Binary search pseudocode
binary search array a for value i:
if all elements have been searched,
result is -1.
examine middle element a[mid].
if a[mid] equals i,
result is mid.
if a[mid] is greater than i,
binary search lower half of a for i.
if a[mid] is less than i,
binary search upper half of a for i.

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 Binary search code
 The following code implements binary search:
// Returns an index at which the target
// appears in the given input array, or -1 if not found.
// pre: array is sorted.
public static int binarySearch(int[] numbers, int target) {
int min = 0;
int max = numbers.length - 1;
while (min <= max) {
int mid = (max + min) / 2;
if (numbers[mid] == target) {
return mid; // found it!
} else if (numbers[mid] < target) {
min = mid + 1; // too small
} else { // numbers[mid] > target
max = mid - 1; // too large
}
}
return -1; // not found
}

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 Runtime of binary search
 How do we analyze the runtime of binary search?

 The algorithm's runtime is dominated by a while loop.

 Each pass of that loop cuts the search space in half.
 How many times does this division in half take place?
 2repetitions  N
 repetitions  log2N

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 Implementing selection
sort
reading: 13.3

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 Selection sort
 selection sort: orders a list of values by repetitively
putting a particular value into its final position

 more specifically:
 find the smallest value in the list
 switch it with the value in the first position
 find the next smallest value in the list
 switch it with the value in the second position
 repeat until all values are in their proper places

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 Selection sort example

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 Selection sort example 2
Index
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Value
27 63 1 72 64 58 14 9

1st pass
1 63 27 72 64 58 14 9

2nd pass
1 9 27 72 64 58 14 63

3rd pass
1 9 14 72 64 58 27 63

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 Selection sort code
 The following code implements selection sort:
// places elements of the given array into sorted order
public static void selectionSort(int[] a) {
for (int i = 0; i < a.length - 1; i++) {
// find index of smallest element
int smallest = i;
for (int j = i + 1; j < a.length; j++) {
if (a[j] < a[smallest]) {
smallest = j;
}
}

swap(a, i, smallest); // swap smallest to front

}
}

public static void swap(int[] list, int i, int j) {

int temp = list[i];
list[i] = list[j];
list[j] = temp;
}
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 Selection sort runtime

 Observation: runtime roughly quadruples when input

size is doubled
 makes sense because the code performs two nested loops over
the array of size N
 its runtime should be O(N2)

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 Sorting practice problem
 Consider the following array of int values:
[22, 11, 34, -5, 3, 40, 9, 16, 6]

 Perform the selection sort algorithm on this data.

Write the contents of the array after each pass of the outermost
loop of selection sort until the array is sorted.

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 Implementing merge sort

reading: 13.4

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 Merge sort
 merge sort: orders a list of values by recursively
dividing the list in half until each sub-list has one
element, then recombining
 Invented by John von Neumann in 1945
 relies on observation that if you have two sorted lists of values,
they can be combined into a single larger sorted list quickly

 merge sort pseudocode:

 split the array into two halves.
 merge sort the left half (recursively).
 merge sort the right half (recursively).
 combine the two halves into a sorted whole.

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 Merge sort example
98 23 45 14 6 67 33 42

98 23 45 14 6 67 33 42

98 23 45 14 6 67 33 42

98 23 45 14 6 67 33 42

23 98 14 45 6 67 33 42

14 23 45 98 6 33 42 67

6 14 23 33 42 45 67 98

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 Merge sort example 2
13 6 21 18 9 4 8 20
0 7

13 6 21 18 9 4 8 20
0 3 4 7

13 6 21 18 9 4 8 20
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

13 6 21 18 9 4 8 20
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

6 13 18 21 4 9 8 20
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

6 13 18 21 4 8 9 20
0 3 4 7

4 6 8 9 13 18 20 21
0 7

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 Merging two sorted arrays
 merge operation:
 Given two sorted arrays, merge operation produces a
sorted array with all the elements of the two arrays

A 6 13 18 21 B 4 8 9 20

C 4 6 8 9 13 18 20 21

 Running time of merge : O(N), where N is the number of

elements in the merged array.
 When merging two sorted parts of the same array, we'll
need a temporary array to store the merged whole.

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 Merge operation example

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 Split into halves code
 The following code splits an array into its two halves:
// Returns the first half of the given array.
public static int[] leftHalf(int[] array) {
int size1 = array.length / 2;
int[] left = new int[size1];
for (int i = 0; i < size1; i++) {
left[i] = array[i];
}
return left;
}
// Returns the second half of the given array.
public static int[] rightHalf(int[] array) {
int size1 = array.length / 2;
int size2 = array.length - size1;
int[] right = new int[size2];
for (int i = 0; i < size2; i++) {
right[i] = array[i + size1];
}
return right;
}

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 Merge code
 The following code implements the merge operation
// pre : result is empty; left/right are sorted
// post: result contains merged sorted lists.
public static void merge(int[] result,
int[] left, int[] right) {
int i1 = 0; // index into left array
int i2 = 0; // index into right array
for (int i = 0; i < result.length; i++) {
if (i2 >= right.length ||
(i1 < left.length &&
left[i1] <= right[i2])) {
result[i] = left[i1]; // take from left
i1++;
} else {
result[i] = right[i2]; // take from right
i2++;
}
}
}
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 Merge sort code
 The following code implements the overall merge sort:
// Places elements of given array into sorted order
// using the merge sort algorithm.
public static void mergeSort(int[] array) {
if (array.length > 1) {
// split array into two halves
int[] left = leftHalf(array);
int[] right = rightHalf(array);

// recursively sort the two halves

mergeSort(left);
mergeSort(right);

// merge the sorted halves into a sorted whole

merge(array, left, right);
}
}

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 Sorting practice problem
 Consider the following array of int values.

[22, 11, 34, -5, 3, 40, 9, 16, 6]

 Perform the merge sort algorithm on this data.

Write the contents of the array after each of the recursive calls
of merge sort have finished.

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