A PRESENTATION

ON
FUNDAMENTALS OF SOIL
MECHANICS
BY
LAWAL RIDWANULLAHI MAYOWA
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL
ENGINEERING,
OSUN STATE UNIVERSITY, OSOGBO
 WHAT IS SOIL?
Soils are natural resources. They are necessary
for our existence. They provide food, shelter,
construction materials, and gems. They protect
the environment and provide support for our
buildings. In this presentation, we will deal with
soils as construction materials and as support
for structures on and within them.
 SOIL MECHANICS
Soil mechanics is one of the engineering
disciplines that deal with soils as an engineering
material. Since ancient ages, engineers have been
handling soils as an engineering material for
various construction projects. Construction of the
Egyptian pyramids, Roman aqueducts, and China’s
Great Wall are a few of such magnificent historical
achievements.
 FORMATION OF SOIL
Rock is a relatively hard, naturally formed solid mass consisting of
various minerals and whose formation is due to any number of
physical and chemical processes. The rock mass is generally so
large and so hard that relatively great effort (e.g., blasting or
heavy crushing forces) is required to break it down into smaller
particles.
The process of weathering of the rock decreases the cohesive
forces binding the mineral grains and leads to the disintegration of
bigger masses to smaller and smaller particles. Soils are formed by
the process of weathering of the parent rock. The weathering of
the rocks might be by mechanical disintegration, and/or chemical
decomposition. Other physical agents that help disintegrate rocks
are glacier ice, wind, the running water of streams and rivers, and
ocean waves
 SIGNIFICANCE OF SOIL MECHANICS
• Foundation Design: Soil mechanics helps engineers determine the
strength, stability, and settlement characteristics of soil. This
information is vital in designing the appropriate type and depth of
foundations for structures such as buildings, bridges, and highways.
It ensures that the foundation can support the load and prevent
excessive settlement or failure.
• Slope Stability: Civil engineers need to assess the stability of slopes
to prevent landslides or slope failures that can endanger lives and
infrastructure. Soil mechanics provides the necessary tools to
analyze soil behavior under different conditions, enabling engineers
to design appropriate slope stabilization measures.
• Earthworks and Excavations: Before construction, engineers must
evaluate the soil's bearing capacity to support the weight of
earthworks, embankments, or excavations. Soil mechanics allows
professionals to assess the soil's shear strength and deformation
 SIGNIFICANCE OF SOIL MECHANICS
• Retaining Structures: Soil mechanics plays a vital role in designing
retaining walls, dams, and geotechnical structures. Engineers need
to understand soil pressures, lateral earth forces, and deformation
properties to design structures that can withstand the imposed loads
and prevent soil movement.
• Ground Improvement: In situations where the soil's natural
properties are inadequate, soil mechanics helps engineers develop
ground improvement techniques. By understanding soil behavior,
professionals can implement methods like soil stabilization,
compaction, or reinforcement to enhance the soil's engineering
properties.
Overall, soil mechanics provides the necessary knowledge and tools to
assess, analyze, and design civil engineering projects with a focus on
soil behavior. By considering the properties and characteristics of soil,
engineers can ensure the safety, stability, and longevity of structures
 TYPES OF SOIL
 Residual soil
Residual soils are formed by chemical weathering. They are formed
by the weathered products at the place of origin. They can also occur
whenever the rate of breakup of the rock exceeds the rate of
removal. An important characteristic of residual soil is the gradation
of particle size
Examples of residual soils are topsoil, laterites, and black cotton soils.
 Transported soil
Transported soil are soil that are found far remote from locations of
formation. The transporting agencies of such soils are glaciers, wind
and water. The soils are named according to the mode of
transportation. Alluvial soils are those that have been transported by
running water. The soils that have been deposited in quiet lakes, are
lacustrine soils. Marine soils are those deposited in sea water. The
soils transported and deposited by wind are called Aeolian soil.
 SOIL PHASE RELATIONSHIP, INDEX
PROPERTIES AND CLASSIFICATION
A soil mass consists of solid particles which form a porous structure.
The voids in the soil mass may be filled with air, water or partly with
water and partly with air. Soil is a three phase system in general.
 Weight – Volume Relationship
V= Vs + Vv = Vs + Vw + Va
where
Vs= volume of soil solids
Vv= volume of voids
Vw= volume of water in the voids
Va= volume of air in the void
Assuming that the weight of the air is negligible,
we can give the total weight of the sample as
W=Ws + Ww
 IMPORTANT VOLUME RELATIONSHIPS
• Void ratio
Void ratio ‘e’ of a soil mass is defined as the ratio of volume of voids,
Vv to the volume of soil solids, Vs.
e= Vv
Vs
• Porosity
Porosity ‘n’ of a soil mass is the ratio of volume of voids, Vv to the
volume of soil mass, V. it is usually expressed in percentage.
n= Vv x 100%
V
Degree of Saturation
• Degree of saturation ‘Sr’ is the ratio of volume of water, Vw present
in a soil mass to the volume of voids, Vv. It is usually expressed as a
percentage. It is also referred to as percent sa
Sr= Vw x 100%
Vv
 IMPORTANT VOLUME RELATIONSHIPS CONT
Percentage air voids
• Percentage air voids ‘na’ is the ratio of volume of air, Va present in soil mass to the total
volume of soil mass, V
na= Va x 100%
V
• Water content
Water content ‘’ of a soil mass is the ratio of weight of water, present in soil mass to the weight
of soil solids, . It is also referred to as moisture content. It is expressed in percentage
w= Ww x 100%
Ws
• Density of soil
Density of soil ‘ρ’ is the ratio of a given mass of soil, M to the volume, V of the soil. It is
measured in kg/m3 or Mg/m3
P=m
v
• Dry density of soil
Dry density of soil ‘ρd’ is the ratio of the mass of soil solid in the sample, Ms to the total
volume, V of the sample.
Pd = Ms
v
 IMPORTANT VOLUME RELATIONSHIPS CONT
• Void Ratio
e=
• Dry density
Pd=
• Saturation density
Psat =Pw()
Note: Pw, density of water = 1000kg/m3
 IMPORTANT VOLUME RELATIONSHIPS CONT
Example 1. The dry density of a sand with a porosity of
0.366 is 1550kg/m3. Determine the void ratio of the soil
and specific gravity of the soil solids.
Solution
Void ratio,
e=
e= = 0.577
Dry Density
Pd=
1550=
Gs=2.44
 PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION
Sieve analysis is carried out by using a set of standard sieves.
Sieves are made by weaving two sets of wires at right angles
to one another. The square holes thus formed between the
wires provide the limit which determines the size of the
particles retained on a particular sieve. The sieve sizes are
given in terms of the number of openings per inch. The
number of openings per inch varies according to different
standards
Particle size plays a dominant role in distinguishing soil
types. Commonly used names of soil such as gravel, sand,
silt, and clay are based on their grain sizes. The boundary
particle sizes are slightly different depending on the
standards. 2.0 mm in AASHTO or 4.75 mm in USCS (Unified
Soil Classification System).
 SOIL CLASSIFICATION

AASHTO (American Association of State Highways and Transportation

Officials)
 SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Example: Classify the following soils by the AASHTO classification .
Soil 1 2 3
Percentage passing sieve No. 10 (2.00 mm sieve) 87 100 100
Percentage passing sieve No. 40 (0.425 mm sieve 63 89 100
Percentage passing sieve No. 200 (0.075 mm sieve) 28 82 88
Liquid limit 46 65 26
Plasticity index 11 31 8

NOTE: GI = (F-35) [0.2+0.005(LL - 40)] + 0.01(F - 15) (PI - 10)

Plasticity index of A-7-5 subgroup is equal to or less than the LL - 30.

Plasticity index of A-7-6 subgroup is greater than LL - 30

GI=0.01(F-15) (PI-10) for group A-7-5

 SOIL CLASSIFICATION
Unified Soil Classification System.
 SOIL CLASSIFICATION
The three soil samples below have the following parameters.
Soil 1 Soil 2 Soil 3
• % passing sieve no. 4 100 100 100
• % passing sieve no.200 84 10 58
• Liquid limit 54 31 28
• Plastic limit 27 23 21
• Cu 1.0 2.06 0.9
• Cc 1.50 1.89 1.3
Determine the group symbols and group names according
to the Unified Soil Classification System.
 ATTERBERG LIMIT
Liquid limit (LL)
The liquid limit (LL) is conceptually defined as the
water content at which the behavior of a clayey soil
changes from the plastic state to the liquid state.
Plastic limit (PL)
The plastic limit (PL) is determined by rolling out a
thread of the fine portion of a soil on a flat, non-
porous surface..
 ATTERBERG LIMIT CONT
• Plasticity Index (PI)
The plasticity index of a soil is the numerical
difference between its liquid limit and plastic limit,
and is a dimensionless number. The plastic Index is
obtain by
PI = LL - PL
• Where: PI is the plasticity index
• LL is the liquid limit
• PL is the plastic limit
 SOIL COMPACTION
Compaction is the process of packing soil particles
more closely together, usually by rolling or
mechanical means, thus increasing the density of
the soil.
Compaction process is accompanied by the
expulsion of air only and it may be accomplished by
rolling, kneading, tamping, or vibration and static
load compaction. Smooth-wheel rollers,
sheepsfoot rollers, rubber-tired rollers and
vibratory rollers are generally used in the field for
soil compaction
 SOIL COMPACTION
The moisture content at which the maximum dry
density or dry unit weight is attained is referred to
as the optimum moisture content (OMC). The
maximum dry density (MDD) is the dry density
obtained using a specified amount of compaction
at the optimum moisture content.
 OBJECTIVES OF COMPACTION
• Increased the density of the soil, thus increasing its shear
strength and bearing capacity, which reduces the potential for
slope stability problems, such as landslides, and enhances the
fill’s capacity for supporting loads, such as foundations.
• Decreased compressibility, which reduces the potential for
excessive settlement.
• Decreased hydraulic conductivity, which inhibits the flow of
water through the soil. This may be desirable or undesirable,
depending on the situation.
• Decreased void ratio, which reduces the amount of water that
can be held in the soil, and thus helps maintain the desirable
strength properties.
• Increased erosion resistance, which helps maintain the ground
surface in a serviceable condition.
 COMPACTION METHODS

Standard Proctor
Modified Proctor
Reduced Proctor
British Standard light
British Standard heavy
West Africa Standard
Reduced BS light
 SOIL COMPACTION
The following results were obtained from a standard compaction
test:
Bulk density (Mg/m3) 1.978 2.083 2.147 2.208 2.188 2.142
Moisture content (%) 11.3 12.2 13.0 14.2 15.1 16.4
Plot the graph of dry density against moisture content.

Note:
Pd=

From the graph, MDD = 1.93 Mg/m3 and OMC = 14.2 %

 SOIL STABILIZATION
Soil stabilization means the improvement of
stability or bearing power of the soil by the use
of controlled compaction, proportioning and/or
the addition of suitable admixture or stabilizers.
Stabilization processes are very complex
because many parameters come into play. The
knowledge of soil properties can help to better
consider what changes, the economic studies
(cost and time), as well as production and
construction techniques to use.
 METHODS OF SOIL STABILIZATION
 Mechanical Stabilization
Mechanical stabilization consists of compacting the soil to
affect its resistance, compressibility, permeability and porosity.
 Physical Stabilization
Physical stabilization consists of modifying the properties of
soil by intervening with its texture (granulometry treatment,
heat (dehydration or freezing) or electric (electrosmosis)
treatments that lead to the drainage of the soil and thus
confer new structural properties to it
 Chemical Stabilization
Chemical Stabilization involves the use of chemical for
stabilization such as lime, cement, fly-ash, bitumen, polymer
etc.
 BENEFIT OF SOIL STABILIZATION
• Benefit of soil stabilization includes:
• Higher resistance values
• Reduction in plasticity
• Lower permeability
• Reduction of pavement thickness
• Aid compaction
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