SEXUAL

REPRODUCTION
 Overview of Sexual Reproduction
 Sexual Reproduction results in the fusion of two
gametes. Gametes are produced by a special type of cell
division called meiosis in which the full set of DNA that
a parent possesses divides into two so that when the
gamete fuses with another gamete (through the process
of fertilization), the gametes produce an offspring with a
full set of DNA. The resulting offspring then possesses
traits from both parents. Since the individual is not an
exact copy of either parent but a combination of both
parents, variation can be observed in the traits or
characteristics of the individual.
Sexual Reproduction in
Microorganisms and Fungi
 Microorganisms, like some species of protists, are
capable of sexual reproduction. Sexual reproduction
happens in protists when conditions became
unfavorable, including two protists to sexually
reproduce and offspring that is better suited to the
environment. Then the gametes unite through
conjugation, and produce a zygote containing a full set
of DNA.
 In Fungi, sexual reproduction involves the fusion of
hyphae that will give rise to a zygote. Such zygote will
develop into sexual spores. Sexual spores are
 Sexual Reproduction in Plants
 Sexual reproduction in plants involves specialized
reproductive organs that facilitate the union of gametes
or sex cells to produce a zygote. These reproductive
organs vary among major groups of plants. In the case
of flowering plants, they have stamens and pistils that
produce male and female gametes, respectively.
 All plants exhibit alternation of generations. These
generations are the gametophyte ( gamete- producing )
and the sporophyte ( spore-producing).
 Sexual reproduction in plants begins
with the production of the embryo sac
and the pollen.
Megasporogenesis forms the female
gametophyte(embryo sac)that develops
in the pistil. Microsporogenesis forms
the male gametophyte (pollen grain).
After they formed, pollen grains need to
reach the pistil of the flower. The
process of transferring pollen grains to
the another anther and then to the
stigma is called pollination, Self-
pollination is the transfer of pollen from
the anther to the stigma of the flower of
Stages of Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants the same plant. Cross-pollination is the
transfer of pollen from the anther of
one flower to the stigma of another
flower in different plant but of the same
species. Pollen can reach tje pistil
through the action of the
insects,birds,bats,and wind.
The landing of pollen grains on the stigma
begins the process of fertilization, wherein the
pollen develops a tube which carries two sperm
cells that will fertilize the ovule.
 One of the sperm cells will fertilize the egg cell
to form a zygote, while the other will unite with
specialized cellsin the ovule called polar nuclei
which will develop to serve as stored food for
the developing zygote. Because of these two
fertilization events, the process is called double
fertilization.
Stages of Reproduction in Nonflowering
Plants (Gymnosperms)
 Gymnosperms are nonflowering plants. They are
classified as such because although they produce
seeds, they do not have an ovary that matures into a
fruit which will enclose this seeds. Instead of fruits
and flowers, they have a structure called cones or
strobili (singular:strobilis) that produce gametes.
 In the female cone, meiosis results in four haploid
spores which will give rise to only one microscopic
female gametophyte. The gametophyte will remain
underneath the sporangium attached to the cone
scale. This gametophyte produces the female sex
organ where the egg will develop.
The spores in the sporangium of the male
cone become pollen grains. Through
mitosis, the haploid nucleus divides to
produce the male gametophyte.
Eventually, two cells will degenerate and
the two remaining cells will become the
generative cell and the tube cell. Through
mitosis, the generative cell will divide to
become the sperm nuclei which will
become the pollen grains.
The pollen grains will be dispersed by
wind to pollinate the female cone. When
the pollen grains comes in contact with
the tip of the female sporangium, a tube
will form. This pollen tube penetrates the
female gametophyte that will lead to the
fertilization of the egg, forming a zygote.
Succeeding cell divisions of the zygote
will rise to the embryo. For
Gymnosperms, water is not needed for
fertilization to take place.
 The embryo formed will remain within tje sporangium
of the female gametophyte. The ovule appears like a
"naked" seed cone. The ovule is made up of the
gametophyte, the sporangium, and the surrounding
covering called the integument. Eventually, the ovule
will shed to become a seed with a seed coat, stored
food, and embryo. These winged seeds are scattered
by the wind. They will germinate into young pine
trees, they will develop reproductive organs and the
life cycle is then repeated. The pollination and seed
dispersal of gymnosperms are highly dependent on the
wind. Angiosperms, on the other hand, have various
types of pollinators, and their fruits and seeds show
adaptations for different dispersal agents.
Stages of Reproduction in Spore-
producing Plants (Ferns and Moses)
In ferns, the leafy structures that you see
are diploid sporophytes. These plants do
not produce seeds bit spores which are the
reproductive cells that you give rise to
mature plants. Spores are enclosed in
sporangia. The sporangium are found in
clusters called sori (singular: sorus)which
are underneath the fronds of ferns. Young
sori are green in color but turn black in
mature.
Spores develop to form haploid
gametophyte. The prothallus is a green,
heart-shaped haploid gametophyte
generation of ferns. This gametophyte
bears two reproductive organs: the anther
antheridium (the male sperm-producing
part) and the archegonium (the female
egg cell-producing part). The presence of
water will enable the flagellated sperm to
swim and fertilize egg or zygote divides
by mitosis that will give rise to the young
fern sporophyte.
 This young fern sporophyte remains attached to
the prothallus until the leaves and roots mature.
The process will cause the gametophyte to shrink
in size. The gametophyte generation of fernshas a
shooter life span.
 In moses, the gametophyte generation is leafy
and upright. The antheridia and the archegonia
are formed at the tip of gametophyte. Just like
ferns, water is important for fertilization to take
place.
 The embryo that will form from the gametophyte
generation of mosses consist of a foot that is
embedded in the tissues of the gametophyte stalk
which holds the capsule that contains the sporess.
The sporophyte is dependent on the
gametophyte for food. The sporophyte
dries off once the spores are released. The
sores will germinate to become the
common green, leafy, and upright
gametophytes that you normally see.
 Sexual Reproduction in Animals
 Sexual reproduction in animals involves the fusion
of two distinct gametes, one from the male and one
from the female. The male gamete is called
spermatozoon (plural: spermatozoa), while the
female gamete is called ovum (plural: ova). The
spermatozoon usually possesses a flagellum that
enables motility, while the ovum is nonmotile and
relatively bigger compared to spermatozoon.
 Fertilization can either be external or internal. In
external fertilization, an ovum is fertilize outside the
female body, while in internal fertilization the ovum
is fertilize inside the female body.
 Terrestrial animals observe internal fertilization as an
adaptation of life on land where water is not readily
available to serve as a medium for the process to
occur. The process also reduces the loss of gametes
which nourishes, protects and serves ad a medium for
the sperm cells to get to the female reproductive tract.
 Most reptiles and birds lay eggs after fertilization,
where their zygote develops around a tough
membrane or shell. Most mammals, on the other hand,
continue to develop their young inside their body until
they give birth to a live young. An exception of this is
the monotremes which lay eggs.
 Some invertebrates observe self-fertilization in which
the organism fertilizes it's eggs with its own sperm
cells.
Tapeworms and internal parasites are
some of the organisms that cimmonly use
self-fertilization because it is hard fir
them ti find a mate.
Animals observe courting behavior and
secretion of hormones to ensure the
simultaneous release of gametes. Sexual
reproduction in animals follows patterns
and cycles depending on environmental
conditions that will allow them to
reproduce effectively.