UNIT II: RESEARCH DESIGN – CONCEPT AND FEATURES

A Research design is the framework of research methods and techniques chosen by a

researcher.
The research design allows researchers to hone in on research methods that are suitable
for the subject matter and set up their studies up for success.

FEATURES OF A GOOD RESEARCH DESIGN

A good research design is one that is capable of obtaining the most reliable and valid
data;
A good research design is one that is capable of measuring any odd events in any
circumstances;
A good research design is one that helps an investigator avoid making mistaken
conclusions;
A good research design is one that can adequately control the various threats of validity,
both internal and external.
A good research design is flexible, appropriate, efficient and economical.
The design which minimizes bias and maximizes the reliability of the data
collected and analyzed is considered a good design.
The design which gives the smallest experimental error is supposed to be the
best design in many investigations.
Similarly, a design which yields maximal information and provides an
opportunity for considering many different aspects of a problem is considered
most appropriate and efficient design in respect of many research problems.
Thus, the question of good design is related to the purpose or objective of the
research problem and also with the nature of the problem to be studied.
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
Quantitative research is “explaining phenomena by collecting numerical data that are
analysed using statistical methods.
Quantitative research can call on surveys or analytics to quantify consumer behaviors,
perceptions, attitudes and interests, giving you the hard numbers needed to back your
ideas or theories.
Quantitative Research Pros:
Larger sample: A broader study can be made, involving more subjects and enabling more
generalization of results.
Objectivity and accuracy: Few variables are involved as data relates to close-ended
information.
Faster and easier: Data collection can be automated via digital or mobile surveys,
allowing thousands of interviews to take place at the same time across multiple countries.
More cost effective: The cost of someone participating in a quantitative survey is
typically far less than in a qualitative interview.
Quantitative Research Cons:
Less detail: Results are based on numerical responses and therefore most will not
offer much insight into thoughts and behaviors, whereby lacking context. It’s
possible to include open-end answers but these rely on respondents
understanding the nature of the question being asked, and being willing to spend
time completing them.
Not entirely practical: Research can be carried out in an unnatural environment
so that control can be applied, meaning results might differ to ‘real world’
findings.
Limiting: Pre-set answers might mask how people really behave or think, urging
them to select an answer that may not reflect their true feelings.
 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Qualitative research seeks to answer questions about why and how people behave in
the way that they do. It provides in-depth information about human behaviour.
Qualitative research is a type of social science research that collects and works with
non-numerical data and that seeks to interpret meaning from these data that help
understand social life through the study of targeted populations or places.

Qualitative Research Pros:

It provides depth and detail: Analyzing thoughts, feelings and behaviors to explore
the ‘why’.
It encourages discussion: When people expand on why they feel or act a certain way,
it can introduce new topic areas not previously considered.
It allows for more flexibility: Questioning can adapt in real-time to the quality and
nature of information being gathered.
Qualitative Research Cons:
Small sample sizes: This method is more in-depth and therefore more
time consuming and resource intensive, meaning fewer people are
surveyed.
More difficult to generalize: With a smaller survey sample it’s difficult to
generalize the results.
Relies on skilled researchers: The quality of the responses is largely
dependent on the skill of the researchers carrying out interviews or
conducting focus groups.
Lack of anonymity: There are some topics that respondents are more
willing or comfortable responding to via anonymous quant surveys than in
one-or-one interviews or discussion groups.
 EXPLORATORY RESEARCH DESIGN
Exploratory research is defined as a research used to investigate a problem which is not
clearly defined.
It is conducted to have a better understanding of the existing problem, but will not provide
conclusive results.
For such a research, a researcher starts with a general idea and uses this research as a
medium to identify issues, that can be the focus for future research.
An important aspect here is that the researcher should be willing to change his/her
direction subject to the revelation of new data or insight.
Such a research is usually carried out when the problem is at a preliminary stage. It is
often referred to as grounded theory approach or interpretive research as it used to answer
questions like what, why and how.
For example: Consider a scenario where a juice bar owner feels that increasing the variety
of juices will enable increase in customers, however he is not sure and needs more
information. The owner intends to carry out an exploratory research to find out and hence
decides to do an exploratory research to find out if expanding their juices selection will
enable him to get more customers or if there is a better idea.
CHARACTERISTICS OF EXPLORATORY RESEARCH

They are not structured studies

It is usually low cost, interactive and open ended.
It will enable a researcher answer questions like what is the problem? What is the
purpose of the study? And what topics could be studied?
To carry out exploratory research, generally there is no prior research done or the
existing ones do not answer the problem precisely enough.
It is a time consuming research and it needs patience and has risks associated with
it.
The researcher will have to go through all the information available for the
particular study he is doing.
There are no set of rules to carry out the research per se, as they are flexible, broad
and scattered.
TYPES OF EXPLORATORY RESEARCH
There are two ways in which research can be conducted namely primary and secondary.
Under these two types, there are multiple methods which can used by a researcher. The
data gathered from these research can be qualitative or quantitative.

Primary research methods

Primary research is information gathered directly from the subject. It can be through a
group of people or even an individual. Such a research can be carried out directly by the
researcher himself or can employ a third party to conduct it on their behalf.
Surveys/polls: Surveys/polls are used to gather information from a predefined group of
respondents. It is one of the most important quantitative method. Various types of
surveys or polls can be used to explore opinions, trends, etc.
Interviews: While you may get a lot of information from public sources, but sometimes
an in person interview can give in-depth information on the subject being studied. Such
a research is a qualitative research method. An interview with a subject matter expert can
give you meaningful insights that a generalized public source won’t be able to provide.
Focus groups: Focus group is yet another widely used method in exploratory
research. In such a method a group of people is chosen and are allowed to express
their insights on the topic that is being studied. Although, it is important to make sure
that while choosing the individuals in a focus group they should have a common
background and have comparable experiences.
Observations: Observation research can be qualitative observation or quantitative
observation. Such a research is done to observe a person and draw the finding from
their reaction to certain parameters. In such a research, there is no direct interaction
with the subject.

Secondary research methods

Secondary research is gathering information from previously published primary
research. In such a research you gather information from sources likes case studies,
magazines, newspapers, books, etc.
Online research: In today’s world, this is one of the fastest way to gather
information on any topic. A lot of data is readily available on the internet and the
researcher can download it whenever he needs it. An important aspect to be noted for
such a research is the genuineness and authenticity of the source websites that the
researcher is gathering the information from.
Literature research: Literature research is one of the most inexpensive method
used for discovering a hypothesis. There is tremendous amount of information
available in libraries, online sources, or even commercial databases. Sources can
include newspapers, magazines, books from library, documents from government
agencies, specific topic related articles, literature, Annual reports, published
statistics from research organizations and so on.

Case study research: Case study research can help a researcher with finding
more information through carefully analyzing existing cases which have gone
through a similar problem. Such analysis are very important and critical especially
in today’s business world. The researcher just needs to make sure he analyses the
case carefully in regards to all the variables present in the previous case against
his own case. It is very commonly used by business organizations or social
sciences sector or even in the health sector.
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH TECHNIQUES IN EXPLORATORY
RESEARCH
Projective Techniques
Depth Interview
Experience Survey
Focus Groups
Observation

Projective Techniques
Projective techniques are indirect methods used in qualitative research.
These techniques allow researchers to tap into consumers’ deep motivations, beliefs, attitudes and values.
This is important because psychology has told us for a long time that much of what drives behavior can
be emotional and irrational in nature. To some extent, these emotional drivers of behavior lie below
conscious awareness.
Consumers tend to be aware of their conscious motivations and decision-making processes. Therefore,
when a researcher directly asks a consumer why they like a product, favor a brand, or prefer a
competitor, responses tended to be rational and purposeful. However, we know that our connections to
brands and our preferences for some products over others stem from motivations and values in which
consumers are not consciously aware.
Projective techniques are useful because people tend to have limited understanding
of their own behavior; likewise, people often have difficulty articulating their
motivations and desires. While direct questioning works well most of the time,
sometimes market researchers want to investigate consumers’ deeper values and
beliefs through projective techniques.
Some common projective techniques include word associations, imagery
associations, grouping and choice ordering techniques, imagery associations with
consumer personalities, and personification activities.
Projective techniques can be fundamental to consumer research, particularly when
the goal is to understand deep emotional connections and cognitions toward
brands, products, and services.

Pros/Advantages of using Projective Techniques:

May elicit responses that subjects would be unwilling or unable to give if they
knew the purpose of the study
Helpful when underlying motivations, beliefs and attitudes are operating at a
subconscious level
Disadvantages/Cons of using Projective Techniques

Requires highly trained interviewers

Requires skilled interpreters for analysis
Serious risk of interpreter bias
 DEPTH INTERVIEWS
In-depth interviews are a qualitative data collection method that involves direct, one-on-
one engagement with individual participants.
In-depth interviewing can take place face-to-face, or in some cases over the phone.
However, for the latter to be effective and to deliver reliable information, the interviewer
must be highly skilled to prevent data loss.
In-depth interviews are sometimes referred as depth interviews, or by the a acronym IDI.
In-Depth Interview Advantages
Interviewers can establish rapport with participants to make them feel more comfortable,
which can generate more insightful responses – especially regarding sensitive topics.
Interviewers have greater opportunity to ask follow-up questions, probe for additional
information, and circle back to key questions later on in the interview to generate a rich
understanding of attitudes, perceptions, motivations, etc.
Interviewers can monitor changes in tone and word choice to gain a deeper understanding.
(Note, if the in-depth interview is face-to-face, researchers can also focus on body
language.)
There is a higher quality of sampling compared to some other data collection
methods.
Researchers need fewer participants to glean useful and relevant insights.
Because in-depth interviews can potentially be so insightful, it is possible to identify
highly valuable findings quickly.

Disadvantages of In-depth Interviews

In-depth interviews are quite time consuming, as interviews must be transcribed,
organized, analyzed, and reported.
If the interviewer is not highly skilled and experienced, the entire process can be
undermined.
The process can be relatively costly compared to other methods.
Participants must be carefully chosen to avoid bias.
Participants typically expect an incentive to participate, and this must be carefully
selected to avoid bias.
EXPERIENCE SURVEY
A Survey is defined as a research method used for collecting data from a pre-defined
group of respondents to gain information and insights on various topics of interest.
A survey involves asking people for information through a questionnaire, which can be
distributed on paper, although with the arrival of new technologies it is more common to
distribute them using digital media such as social networks, email, or URLs.

Advantages of the survey

Relatively easy to administer
Can be developed in less time (compared to other data-collection methods)
Cost-effective, but cost depends on survey mode
Can be administered remotely via online, mobile devices, mail, email, kiosk, or telephone.
Conducted remotely can reduce or prevent geographical dependence
Capable of collecting data from a large number of respondents
Numerous questions can be asked about a subject, giving extensive flexibility in data analysis
With survey software, advanced statistical techniques can be utilized to analyze survey data to
determine validity, reliability, and statistical significance, including the ability to analyze
multiple variables
A broad range of data can be collected (e.g., attitudes, opinions, beliefs, values, behavior,
factual).
Standardized surveys are relatively free from several types of errors

Disadvantages of using survey

Respondents may not feel encouraged to provide accurate, honest answers
Respondents may not feel comfortable providing answers that present themselves in a
unfavorable manner.
Respondents may not be fully aware of their reasons for any given answer because of lack of
memory on the subject, or even boredom.
Surveys with closed-ended questions may have a lower validity rate than other question types.
Data errors due to question non-responses may exist. The number of respondents who choose
to respond to a survey question may be different from those who chose not to respond, thus
creating bias.
FOCUS GROUPS
A focus group is a common qualitative research technique used by companies for marketing
purposes. It typically consists of a small number of participants, usually about six to 12,
from within a company's target market.
The consumers are brought together and led through discussions of important company and
brand topics by a moderator.
Within a focus group, a moderator poses a series of questions intended to gain insight about
the way the group views the brand, product, related images, slogans, concepts or symbols.
Focus-group moderators should pose questions in a way that does not lead group members
to provide desired responses, but rather honest and insightful responses.

Advantages of Focus Groups:

A focus group is generally more useful when outcomes of research are very unpredictable
and you’re looking for more open feedback.
A focus group allows consumers to express clear ideas and share feelings that do not
typically come out in a quantified survey or paper test.
Focus groups usually provide immediate ideas for the improvement of particular
products or concepts.

Disadvantages of Focus Groups

Compared to individual interviews, focus groups are not as efficient in covering
maximum depth on a particular issue.
A particular disadvantage of a focus group is the possibility that the members
may not express their honest and personal opinions about the topic at hand. They
may be hesitant to express their thoughts, especially when their thoughts oppose
the views of another participant.
Compared with surveys and questionnaires, focus groups are much more
expensive to execute. Participants sometimes offer their time for free; others will
have to be compensated in cash or in kind.
 OBSERVATION
Observation, as the name implies, is a way of collecting data through observing.
Observation data collection method is classified as a participatory study, because the
researcher has to immerse herself in the setting where her respondents are, while taking
notes and/or recording.
Observation as a data collection method can be structured or unstructured. In structured or
systematic observation, data collection is conducted using specific variables and according
to a pre-defined schedule. Unstructured observation, on the other hand, is conducted in an
open and free manner in a sense that there would be no pre-determined variables or
objectives.

Advantages of Observation
Observation is probably the most common and the simplest method of data collection. It
does not require much technical knowledge. Although scientific controlled observation
requires some technical skill of the researcher, still it is easier than other methods.
Observation does not require the willingness of the people to provide various information
about them. Often some respondents do not like to speak about themselves to an outsider
In other methods like interview, questionnaire etc., the researcher has to depend on
information provided by the respondents. So these are indirect methods and here
the investigator does not have any means to examine the accuracy of the data
supplied by them. But in observation the observer can directly check the accuracy
from the observed.

Disadvantages of Observation
Observation method is disadvantaged with longer time requirements, high levels of
observer bias, and impact of observer on primary data, in a way that presence of
observer may influence the behavior of sample group elements.
It is important to note that observation data collection method may be associated
with certain ethical issues. Fully informed consent of research participant(s) is one
of the basic ethical considerations to be adhered to by researchers.
At the same time, the behaviour of sample group members may change with
negative implications on the level of research validity if they are notified about the
presence of the observer.
DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH - CONCEPT
Descriptive research aims to accurately and systematically describe a population, situation or
phenomenon. It can answer what, when, where, when and how questions, but
not why questions.

A descriptive research design can use a wide variety of quantitative and qualitative methods to
investigate one or more variables. The researcher here does not control or manipulate any of
the variables, but only observes and measures them.

Descriptive research is an appropriate choice when the research aim is to identify

characteristics, frequencies, trends, correlations, and categories.

For example, an apparel brand that wants to understand the fashion purchasing trends among
New York buyers will conduct a demographic survey of this region, gather population data and
then conduct descriptive research on this demographic segment. The research will then
uncover details on “what is the purchasing pattern of New York buyers”, but not cover any
investigative details on “why” the patterns exits. Because for the apparel brand trying to break
into this market, understanding the nature of their market is the objective of the study.
TYPES OF DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH
Surveys: Survey research allows you to gather large volumes of data that can be analyzed
for frequencies, averages and patterns. They are a common method in correlational
research, a type of descriptive research that aims to find relationships between variables.

Observations: Observations allow you to gather data on behaviors and phenomena

without having to rely on the honesty and accuracy of respondents. This method is often
used by psychological, social and market researchers to understand how people act in real-
life situations.
Observation of physical entities and phenomena is also an important part of research in the
natural sciences. Before you can develop testable hypotheses, models or theories, it’s
necessary to observe and systematically describe the subject under investigation.

Case studies: A case study can be used to describe the characteristics of a specific subject
(such as a person, group, event or organization). Instead of gathering a large volume of
data to identify patterns across time or location, case studies gather detailed data to identify
the characteristics of a narrowly defined subject.
USES OF DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH
Define respondent characteristics: The aim of using close-ended questions is to draw concrete
conclusions about the respondents. This could be the need to derive patterns, traits and behaviors
of the respondents.
Measure data trends: Data trends can be measured over time with statistical capabilities provided
by descriptive research.
Conduct comparisons: Organizations also use descriptive research to understand how different
groups respond to a certain product or service. For example, an apparel brand creates a survey
asking general questions that measure the brands image. The same survey also asks demographic
questions like age, income, gender, geographical location etc. This consumer research helps the
organization understand what aspects of the brand appeal to the population and what aspects do
not.
Validate existing conditions: Descriptive research is widely used to help ascertain the prevailing
conditions and underlying patterns of the research object.
 CROSS SECTIONAL STUDIES

Cross-sectional studies are observational in nature and are known as descriptive

research, not causal or relational, meaning that you can't use them to determine the cause
of something, such as a disease. Researchers record the information that is present in a
population, but they do not manipulate variable.
This type of research can be used to describe characteristics that exist in a community,
but not to determine cause-and-effect relationships between different variables.
Some of the key characteristics of a cross-sectional study include:
i. The study takes place at a single point in time
ii. It does not involve manipulating variables
iii. It allows researchers to look at numerous characteristics at once (age, income, gender,
etc.)
iv. It's often used to look at the prevailing characteristics in a given population
v. It can provide information about what is happening in a current population
EXAMPLE OF CROSS SECTIONAL STUDY

In our study, we would simply measure the cholesterol levels of daily walkers and
non-walkers along with any other characteristics that might be of interest to us. We
would not influence non-walkers to take up that activity, or advise daily walkers to
modify their behavior. In short, we’d try not to interfere.
We might choose to measure cholesterol levels in daily walkers across two age
groups, over 40 and under 40, and compare these to cholesterol levels among non-
walkers in the same age groups. We might even create subgroups for gender.
However, we would not consider past or future cholesterol levels, for these would
fall outside the frame. We would look only at cholesterol levels at one point in time.
Since this study is going to measure the cholesterol level among two different age
groups only one time, it is known as cross sectional study. The comparison is made
one time without taking any past or future records in consideration.
 LONGITUDINAL RESEARCH

Longitudinal research is a type of correlational research that involves looking at

variables over an extended period of time. This type of study can take place over a
period of weeks, months, or even years. In some cases, longitudinal studies can last
several decades.
Data is first collected at the outset of the study, and may then be repeatedly gathered
throughout the length of the study. Doing this also allows researchers to observe how
variable may change over time.
Longitudinal studies tend to require more resources and are often more expensive than
cross-sectional resources. They are also more likely to be influenced by what is known
as selective attrition, which means that some individuals are simply more likely to drop
out of a study than others, which can influence the validity of the study.
The most important distinction between longitudinal and cross-sectional studies, for our
purposes, is the timeline. Instead of a researcher collecting data from varying subjects in
order to study the same variables at only one time in case of cross sectional study, here,
in a longitudinal study , the same subjects are surveyed multiple times, in some cases,
over the course of many years.
 EXAMPLE OF LONGITUDINAL RESEARCH

Now in a longitudinal study, the researcher may choose to look at the change in
cholesterol levels among women over 40 who walk daily for a period of 20 years.
The longitudinal study design would account for cholesterol levels at the onset of a
walking regime and as the walking behavior continued over time. Therefore, a
longitudinal study is more likely to suggest cause-and-effect relationships than a
cross-sectional study by virtue of its scope.

A group of customers are observed over a period of 2 years that how their
preferences evolved or changed while buying a mobile phone from the market. The
longitudinal study also establishes that what changes are required to be made by the
producers in terms of the varied products that they are offering to the customers and
what factors derive change in the preferences of the buyers.
 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN

Experimental research is a study that strictly adheres to a scientific research design. It

includes a hypothesis, a variable that can be manipulated by the researcher, and
variables that can be measured, calculated and compared.
Most importantly, experimental research is completed in a controlled environment.
The researcher collects data and results will either support or reject the hypothesis.
Experimental research is a scientific approach to research, where one or more
independent variables are manipulated and applied to one or more dependent
variables to measure their effect on the latter. The effect of the independent variables
on the dependent variables is usually observed and recorded over some time, to aid
researchers in drawing a reasonable conclusion regarding the relationship between
these 2 variable types.
Experimental research designs involve collecting quantitative data and performing
statistical analysis on them during research. Therefore, making it an example of
quantitative research method.
 EXAMPLES OF EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
Employee skill evaluation: Before employing a job seeker, organizations conduct
tests that are used to screen out less qualified candidates from the pool of qualified
applicants. This way, organizations can determine an employee's skill set at the point
of employment.
In the course of employment, organizations also carry out employee training to
improve employee productivity and generally grow the organization. Further
evaluation is carried out at the end of each training to test the impact of the training on
employee skills, and test for improvement.
Here, the subject is the employee, while the treatment is the training conducted. This is
a pretest-posttest control group experimental research example.
Studying Human Behavior: Social scientists are the ones who mostly use
experimental research to test human behavior. For example, consider 2 people
randomly chosen to be the subject of the social interaction research where one person
is placed in a room without human interaction for 1 year.
The other person is placed in a room with a few other people, enjoying human
interaction. There will be a difference in their behavior at the end of the experiment.
 CAUSAL RESEARCH
Causal research, also known as explanatory research is conducted in order to identify
the extent and nature of cause-and-effect relationships. Causal research can be
conducted in order to assess impacts of specific changes on existing norms, various
processes etc.
Causal studies focus on an analysis of a situation or a specific problem to explain the
patterns of relationships between variables. Experiments are the most popular primary
data collection methods in studies with causal research design.
Causal research falls under the category of conclusive research, because of its attempt
to reveal a cause and effect relationship between two variables.
A Causal research will have only two objectives:
i. Understanding which variables are the cause, and which variables are the
effect. For example, let’s say a city council wanted to reduce car accidents on their
streets. They might find through preliminary descriptive and exploratory research
that both accidents and road rage have been steadily increasing over the past 5 years.
Instead of automatically assuming that road rage is the cause of these accidents, it
would be important to measure whether the opposite could be true.
ii. Determining the nature of the relationship between the causal variables and
the effect predicted. Continuing with our example, let’s say the city council
proved that road rage had an increasing effect on the number of car accidents in the
area. The causal research could be used for two things. First measuring the
significance of the effect, like quantifying the percentage increase in accidents that
can be contributed by road rage. Second, observing how the relationship between
the variables works (ie: enraged drivers are prone to accelerating dangerously or
taking more risks, resulting in more accidents).

These two above mentioned objectives are what makes causal research more
scientific than its exploratory and descriptive counter parts.
In order to meet these objectives, causal researchers have to isolate the particular
variable they believe is responsible for something taking place, and measure its
true significance. With this information, an organization can confidently decide
whether it is worth the resources to use a variable, like adding better traffic signs,
or attempt to eliminate a variable, like road rage.
INDEPENDENT AND DEPENDENT VARIABLES

An independent variable is exactly what it sounds like. It is a variable that stands alone and isn't
changed by the other variables you are trying to measure. For example, someone's age might be an
independent variable. Other factors (such as what they eat, how much they go to school, how much
television they watch) aren't going to change a person's age.
Just like an independent variable, a dependent variable is exactly what it sounds like. It is something
that depends on other factors. For example, a test score could be a dependent variable because it could
change depending on several factors such as how much you studied, how much sleep you got the
night before you took the test, or even how hungry you were when you took it. Usually when you are
looking for a relationship between two things you are trying to find out what makes the dependent
variable change the way it does. The dependent variable is the variable being tested and measured in
an experiment, and is 'dependent' on the independent variable.
In an experiment, the researcher is looking for the possible effect on the dependent variable that might
be caused by changing the independent variable.
For example, the researcher is trying to study an association between age and buying
behaviour. The independent variable over here is age and the dependent variable is
the buying behaviour.
There’s nothing that the researcher can do to increase, decrease or pace up age. It is
independent of any manipulations by the researcher. Hence, it is an independent
variable.
However, on the other hand, the other variable being measured over here (buying
behaviour) would change as a result of the change in age. Hence, age is something
that would change on its own and buying behaviour (dependent variable) would
change because of the change in age (independent variable).
 CONCOMITANT VARIABLE/COVARIATE
A concomitant variable or covariate is a variable, which we may observe during the
course of our research or statistical analysis, but we cannot control it and it is not to be
the focus of our analysis.
Although concomitant variables are not given any central recognition, they may
be confounding or interacting with the variables being studied. Ignoring them can lead
to skewed or biased data, and so they must often be corrected for in a final analysis.
For example, let’s say you had a study which compares the salaries of male vs. female
college graduates. The variables being studied are gender(independent variable) and
salary(dependent variable), and the primary survey questions are related to these two
main topics. But, since salaries increase the longer someone has been in the workplace,
the concomitant variable ‘time out of college’ has the potential to skew our data if it is
not accounted for.
Similarly, in a study comparing the effects of soil composition on the growth of tomatoes
over 20 different locations country-wide, average temperatures and hours of sunlight
available to each tomato patch would both be concomitant variables that would need to
be included in a final analysis in order to get valid results.
 EXTRANEOUS VARIABLE

Extraneous variables are any variables that you are not intentionally studying in your
experiment or test. When you run an experiment, you’re looking to see if
one variable (the independent variable) has an effect on
another variable (the dependent variable)
However in an experiment there could be other variables, perhaps ones that never
crossed your mind, which might influence the outcome of an experiment. These
undesirable variables are called extraneous variables.
A simple example: you want to know if online learning increases student
understanding of statistics. One group uses an online knowledge base to study, the
other group uses a traditional text.
Extraneous variables could include prior knowledge of statistics; you would have to
make sure that group A roughly matched group B with prior knowledge before
starting the study. Other extraneous variables could include amount of support in the
home, socio-economic income, or temperature of the testing room.
TYPES OF EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES
Demand characteristics: environmental clues which tell the participant how to
behave, like features in the surrounding or researcher’s non-verbal behavior.
Experimenter / Investigator Effects: where the researcher unintentionally affects
the outcome by giving clues to the participants about how they should behave.
Participant variables, like prior knowledge, health status or any other individual
characteristic that could affect the outcome.
Situational variables, like noise, lighting or temperature in the environment.
 TREATMENT GROUP OR EXPERIMENTAL GROUP

A Treatment group (sometimes called an experimental group) is a group that receives

a treatment in an experiment. Treatment groups are the sets of participants in a research
study that are exposed to some manipulation or intentional change in the independent
variable of interest.
The other group which does not receive any treatment is referred to as the control group.
For example:
You are testing to see if a new plant fertilizer increases sunflower size. You put 20
plants of the same height and strain into a location where all the plants get the same
amount of water and sunlight. One half of the plants–the control group–get the regular
fertilizer. The other half of the plants–the experimental group–get the fertilizer you are
testing.
You are testing to see if a new drug works for asthma. You divide 100 volunteers into
two groups of 50. One group of 50 gets the drug; they are the experimental group. The
other 50 people get a normal sugar pill; they are the control group.
 CONTROL GROUP

The control group (sometimes called a comparison group) is used in an experiment

as a way to ensure that your experiment actually works. It’s a way to make sure that
the treatment you are giving is causing the experimental results, and not something
outside the experiment.
The control group in an experiment is the group who does not receive any treatment
and is used as a benchmark against which other test results are measured.
An experiment is split into two groups: the treatment group and the control group.
The treatment group is given the experimental treatment and the control group is
given either a standard treatment or nothing.
For example, let’s say you wanted to know if Gatorade increased athletic
performance. Your treatment group would be given the Gatorade and your control
group would be given regular water.