UNIT-5

Contents
• Assembler directives
• Simple programs
• Procedures
• Macros
• Assembly language programs involving:
• Logical
• Branch
• CALL instructions
• Sorting
• Evaluation of Arithmetic expressions
• String Manipulation
 Assembler Directives
• Types of hints are given to the assembler using
some predefined alphabetical strings called
Assembler Directives.
• Which helps the assembler to correctly
understand the assembly language programs.
 Assembler Directives

Assume
Used to tell the assembler the names of the logical
segments to be assumed in the program.
Example, ASSUME CS:CODE ,DS:DATA
DB – Defined Byte
Used to declare a byte type variable in memory.
Example, n1 DB 49h
DW – Define Word
Used to tell the assembler to define a word type
variable in memory. ex: n1 DW 1234h
 Assembler Directives

DD – Define Double Word

•Used to declare a variable of type double word or to
reserve a memory location which can be accessed as
double word.
DQ – Define Quad word
•Used to tell the assembler to declare the variable as 4
words of storage in memory.
DT – Define Ten bytes
•Used to tell the assembler to declare the variable which
is 10 bytes in length or reserve 10 bytes of storage in
memory.
 Assembler Directives

END – End the program

•To tell the assembler to stop fetching the instruction and end
the program execution.
•ENDP – it is used to end the procedure
(subprogram/subroutine)
•ENDS – used to end the segment.
EQU – Equate
•Used to give name to some value or symbol.
•EX: ADDITION EQU ADD
EVEN – Align on Even memory address
•Tells the assembler to increment the location to the next
even address if it is not already at an even address.
 Assembler Directives

EXTRN: EXTERNAL AND PUBLIC

•Used to tell the assembler that the names ,procedures and labels after this directive
have already been defined in some other assembly language module.
•EX: MODULE1 SEGMENT
PUBLIC FACTORIAL
MODULE1 ENDS
MODULE2 SEGMENT
EXTRN FACTORIAL
MODULE2 ENDS
GROUP – Group related segment
•Used to tell the assembler to group the logical segments named after the
directive into one logical segment.
•This allows the content of all the segments to be accessed from the same
group.
•EX: PROGRAM GROUP CODE,DATA,STACK
 Assembler Directives

LABEL
•Used to give the name to the current value in the
location counter.
•The LABEL directive must be followed by a term which
specifies the type you want associated with that name.
LENGTH
•Used to determine the number of items in some data
such as string or array.
•EX:MOV CX,LENGTH ARRAY
 Assembler Directives

OFFSET
•It is an operator which tells the assembler to determine
the offset or displacement of named data item or
procedure from the start of the segment which contains
it.
•EX: MOV SI,OFFSET LIST
ORG – Originate
•Tells the assembler to set the location value.
•Example, ORG 7000H sets the location counter value to
point to 7000H location in memory.
 Assembler Directives

PROC – Procedure
•Used to identify the start of the procedure.
PTR – Pointer (BYTE OR WORD)
•Used to assign a specific type to a variable or a
label.
•EX:MOV AL, BYTE PTR [SI]
MOV AX,WORD PTR [SI]
 Assembler Directives

• + & - operators:
• These operators represents arithmetic
addition & subtraction.
• EX:MOV AX,[SI+2]
MOV DX,[BX-3]
• SEGMENT: logical segment
• Ex:CODE SEGMENT
 Assembler Directives

SHORT
•Used to tell the assembler that only a 1-byte displacement is
needed to code a jump instruction.
•If the jump destination is after the jump instruction in the
program, the assembler will automatically reserve 2 bytes for
the displacement.
TYPE
•Tells the assembler to determine the type of a specified
variable.
•The TYPE operator can be used in instruction such as ADD BX,
TYPE WORD_ARRAY, where we want to increment BX to point
to the next word in an array of words.
 Procedures
• The procedure is a group of repetitive
instructions stored as a separate program in the
memory and it is called from the main program
whenever required.
• Type of procedure depends on where the
procedure is stored in the memory.
• If it is in the same code segment where the main
program is stored then It is called near procedure
otherwise it is referred to as far procedure.
• This procedures are used by CALL and RET
instructions.
 Procedures
• The CALL instruction is used to transfer execution
to procedure or subprogram. there are two types
of CALLs, near & far.
• Near call is a call to a procedure which is in the
same code segment as the call instruction.
• Far call is a call to a procedure which is in the
different code segment from that which contains
the call instruction.
• RET instruction will return the execution from a
procedure to the next instruction after call
instruction.
 Macros
• Macro is a group of repetitive instructions.
• The macro assembler generates the code in
the program each time where the macro is
called, such that it takes more memory.
• Macros can be defined by MACRO and ENDM.
 Differences b/w Procedures & Macros
Procedures Macros

Accessed by CALL & RET Accessed during assembly

instructions during with name given to macro
program execution. when defined.
Machine code for Machine code is generated
instructions is put only for instructions each time
once in the memory. when macro is called.
With procedures less With macros more
memory is required. memory is required.
Programs
 8 - bit Addition

Assume cs : code, ds :data

data segment
num1 db 05H
num2 db 02H
res db ?
data ends
code segment
start: MOV AX, data
MOV DS ,AX
MOV AX, 0000H
MOV AL ,num1
MOV BL,num2
ADD AL,BL
MOV res,AL
INT 3H
code ends
end start
 8 – bit Subtraction
Assume cs : code, ds :data
data segment
num1 db 05H
num2 db 02H
res db ?
data ends
code segment
start: MOV AX, data
MOV DS ,AX
MOV AX, 0000H
MOV AL ,num1
MOV BL,num2
SUB AL,BL
MOV res,AL
INT 3H
code ends
end start
 8 - bit Multiplication

Assume cs : code, ds :data

data segment
num1 db 04H
num2 db 02H
res dw ?
data ends
code segment
start: MOV AX, data
MOV DS ,AX
MOV AX, 0000H
MOV AL ,num1
MOV BL,num2
MUL BL
MOV res,AX
INT 3H
code ends
end start
 8 - bit Division
Assume cs : code, ds :data
data segment
num1 db 05H
num2 db 02H
quo db ?
rem db ?
data ends
code segment
start: MOV AX, data
MOV DS ,AX
MOV AX, 0000H
MOV AL ,num1
MOV BL,num2
DIV BL
MOV quo ,AL
MOV rem, AH
INT 3H
code ends
end start
 16 - bit Addition

Assume cs : code, ds :data

data segment
num1 dw 4215H
num2 dw 3202H
res dw ?
data ends
code segment
start: MOV AX, data
MOV DS ,AX
MOV AX, 0000H
MOV AX ,num1
MOV BX,num2
ADD AX,BX
MOV res,AX
INT 3H
code ends
end start
 16– bit Subtraction
Assume cs : code, ds :data
data segment
num1 dw 7505H
num2 dw 4602H
res dw ?
data ends
code segment
start: MOV AX, data
MOV DS ,AX
MOV AX, 0000H
MOV AX ,num1
MOV BX,num2
SUB AX,BX
MOV res,AX
INT 3H
code ends
end start
 16 - bit Multiplication
Assume cs : code, ds :data
data segment
num1 dw 2205H
num2 dw 1102H
res1 dw ?
res2 dw ?
data ends
code segment
start: MOV AX, data
MOV DS ,AX
MOV AX, 0000H
MOV AX ,num1
MOV BX,num2
MUL BX
MOV res1,AX
MOV res2, DX
INT 3H
code ends
end start
 16 - bit Division
Assume cs : code, ds :data
data segment
num1 dw 6666H
num2 dw 3332H
quo dw ?
rem dw ?
data ends
code segment
start: MOV AX, data
MOV DS ,AX
MOV AX, 0000H
MOV AX ,num1
MOV BX,num2
DIV BX
MOV quo ,AX
MOV rem, DX
INT 3H
code ends
end start
 Square of a number

Assume cs : code, ds :data

data segment
num1 db 04H
res db ?
data ends
code segment
start: MOV AX, data
MOV DS ,AX
MOV AX, 0000H
MOV AL ,num1
MUL AL
MOV res,AX
INT 3H
code ends
end start
 Cube of Number
Assume cs : code, ds :data
data segment
num1 db 04H
res db ?
data ends
code segment
start: MOV AX, data
MOV DS ,AX
MOV AX, 0000H
MOV AL ,num1
MOV BL,num1
MUL AL
MUL BL
MOV res,AX
INT 3H
code ends
end start
 Exchange of a Number
Assume cs : code, ds :data
data segment
num1 db 05H
num2 db 02H
data ends
code segment
start: MOV AX, data
MOV DS ,AX
MOV AX, 0000H
MOV AL ,num1
MOV BL,num2
XCHG AL,BL
INT 3H
code ends
end start
 Addition of Series of numbers

Assume cs : code, ds: data

data segment
List db 12h,34h,56h,78h,89h
RES dw ?
data ends
code segment
start:
MOV AX, data
MOV DS,AX
MOV AX,0000h
MOV BX, 0000h
MOVCL,5
MOV SI, offset List
again: MOV BL,[SI]
ADD AL,BL
INC SI
DEC CL
JNZ again
MOV RES ,AX
INT 3h
code ends
end start
 Average of Series of numbers

Assume cs : code, ds: data

data segment
List db 12h,34h,56h,78h,89h
RES dw ?
data ends
code segment
start:
MOV AX, data
MOV DS,AX
MOV AX,0000h
MOV BX, 0000h
MOVCL,5
MOV SI, offset List
again: MOV BL,[SI]
ADD AL,BL
INC SI
DEC CL
JNZ again
MOV BL,05 H
DIV BL
MOV RES ,AX
INT 3h
code ends
end start
 Sum of squares of given series of numbers
assume cs: code, ds: data
data segment
List db 01h,02h,03h,04h,05h
SUM dw ?
data ends
code segment
start:
MOV AX,data
MOV DS,AX
 MOV SI, offset List1
MOV Cl , 05H
l1: MOV AX,0000H
MOV AL,[SI]
MUL AL
ADD BX,AX
INC SI
loop l1
MOV SUM ,BX
INT 3H
code ends
end start
 Sum of CUBES of given series of numbers
assume cs: code, ds: data
data segment
List db 01h,02h,03h,04h,05h
SUM dw ?
data ends
code segment
start:
MOV AX,data
MOV DS,AX
 MOV SI, offset List1
MOV Cl , 05H
l1: MOV AX,0000H
MOV AL,[SI]
MOV DL,[SI]
MUL AL
MUL DL
ADD BX,AX
INC SI
loop l1
MOV SUM,BX
INT 3H
code ends
end start
 Number of even and odd numbers in list
assume cs:code,ds:data
data segment
list db 01h,02h,03h,04h,05h,06h,07h,08h,09h
od dw ?
eve dw ?
data ends
code segment
start : MOV AX, data
MOV DS,AX
 XOR AX,AX
XOR BX,BX
XOR DX,DX
MOV CL,09H
MOV SI, offset list
again: MOV AL,[SI]
ROR AL,01H
JC odd
INC BX
JMP next
odd: INC DX
next: INC SI

DEC CL
JNZ again
MOV od, DX
MOV eve , BX
INT 3H
code ends
end start
 Greatest number in list
assume cs: code ,ds: data
data segment
list db 10h,20h,30h,40h,50h
res db ?
data ends
code segment
start:
MOV AX, data
MOV DS,AX
 XOR AX,AX
MOV Cl,04H
MOV SI, offset list
MOV AL,[SI]
again: CMP AL,[SI+1]
JNC next
MOV AL, [SI+1]
next: INC SI
DEC CL
JNZ again
MOV res,AL
INT 3h
code ends
end start
 Smallest number in list
assume cs: code ,ds: data
data segment
list db 10h,20h,30h,40h,50h
res db ?
data ends
code segment
start:
MOV AX, data
MOV DS,AX
 XOR AX,AX
MOV Cl,04H
MOV SI, offset list
MOV AL,[SI]
again: CMP AL,[SI+1]
JC next
MOV AL, [SI+1]
next: INC SI
DEC CL
JNZ again
MOV res,AL
INT 3h
code ends
end start
 Factorial of a given number
assume cs: code, ds: data
data segment
n1 db 04H
Fact dw ?
data ends
code segment
start:
MOV AX,data
MOVDS,AX
MOV AL,0000H
 MOV AL,n1
MOV CL,03H
L1:
MUL CL
DEC CL
JNZ L1
MOV fact,AX
INT 3H
Code ends
end start