Unit 3

Form of Basic SQL Query

Examples of Basic SQL Queries
Introduction to Nested Queries Correlated.
Nested Queries Set Comparison Operators
Aggregative Operators
NULL values
Comparison using Null values
Logical connectivity’s AND, OR and NOT
Impact on SQL Constructs
Outer Joins Disallowing NULL values
Complex Integrity Constraints in SQLTriggers and
Active Data bases.
Database Languages
DDL (Data Definition Language)
DML (Data Manipulation language)
DCL (Data control language)
DQL (Data Query Language)
 DDL
•DDL stands for Data Definition Language.

•It is used to define database structure or pattern.

•It is used to create schema, tables, indexes, constraints,

etc. in the database.

•Using the DDL statements, you can create the skeleton of

the database.

•Data definition language is used to store the information of

metadata like the number of tables and schemas, their
names, indexes, columns in each table, constraints, etc.
Here are some tasks that come under DDL:

Create: It is used to create tables in the database.

Alter: It is used to alter the structure of the database.

Drop: It is used to delete objects from the database.

Truncate: It is used to remove all records from a table.

Rename: It is used to rename an table.

CREATE TABLE table-name (Fieldname1
data_type, Fieldname2 data_type , …. ….. ….)

CREATE TABLE Sailors (sid NUMBER(2), sname

VARCHAR2(20), rating NUMBER(2))

ALTER TABLE tablename ADD (fieldname

Field_datatype)

ALTER TABLE Sailors ADD (age NUMBER(2))

ALTER TABLE Sailors Modify (age NUMBER(2))
ALTER TABLE Sailors drop column age
ALTER TABLE Sailors rename sid to studentid
DROP command

Used to delete an existing table

Syntax: DROP TABLE tablename
Example: DROP TABLE Sailors

TRUNCATE command

TRUNCATE Removes all rows from a table without backup

Syntax: TRUNCATE table tablename

Example: TRUNCATE table Sailors

RENAME Command

Syntax: RENAME TABLE old_table_name to new_table_name;

Example: RENAME TABLE student to students_info;
 DML
• The SQL commands that deals with the manipulation
of data present in the database belong to DML or Data
Manipulation Language and this includes most of the
SQL statements.
• Examples of DML:
• INSERT – is used to insert data into a table.
• UPDATE – is used to update existing data within a
table.
• DELETE – is used to delete records from a database
table.
INSERT command

Inserting record into a table

Syntax: INSERT INTO table-name VALUES (field1,field2,…)
Example:
INSERT INTO Sailors values (22,'Dustin',7,45.0)

Inserting records from another table

Syntax: INSERT INTO table_name1 SELECT * FROM table_name2

Example: INSERT INTO Sailors1 SELECT * FROM Sailors;

CREATE TABLE Sailors1 as Select * from Sailors;

UPDATE command

For modifying attribute values of (some) tuples in a table

Syntax: UPDATE tablename SET column1=value1,…,
columnn=valuen WHERE condition
Example: UPDATE Sailors SET age=34.5 WHERE sid=22

DELETE command

Removing specified rows from a table

Syntax: DELETE FROM tablename WHERE condition
Example: DELETE FROM Sailors WHERE sid=22
DROP command

Used to delete an existing table

Syntax: DROP TABLE tablename
Example: DROP TABLE Sailors

TRUNCATE command

TRUNCATE Removes all rows from a table without backup

Syntax: TRUNCATE table tablename

Example: TRUNCATE table Sailors

Removing all rows from a table

Syntax: DELETE FROM tablename
Example: DELETE FROM Sailors
SQL is the most widely used commercial relational
database language

THE FORM OF A BASIC SQL QUERY

SELECT [DISTINCT] field names

FROM table names
WHERE condition

SELECT clause contains fields to be displayed in the result

FROM clause contains table names
Optional WHERE clause contains conditions on the tables
mentioned in the FROM clause
Rename Operator

• The SQL allows renaming relations and

attributes using the as clause:

• old-name as new-name

• Find the name, and id of all sailors; rename the

column name id as sailornumber.

Select sname,id as sailornumber

from sailors ;
 DCL
-GRANT
-REVOKE

GRANT Command

It is used to provide access rights or privileges on the

database objects to the users.

Syntax:
GRANT privilege_name
ON object_name
TO {user_name |PUBLIC}

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privilege_name is the access right or privilege granted
to the user. Some of the access rights are ALL, and
SELECT

object_name is database object name like TABLE,

VIEW, STORED PROCEDURE

user_name is the name of the user to whom an access

right is being granted

--PUBLIC is used to grant access rights to all users

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Example:

GRANT SELECT ON employee TO user1;

User1 will be able to select data from employee

database

SQL REVOKE Command:

The REVOKE command removes user access rights

or privileges to the database objects

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Syntax:

REVOKE privilege_name
ON object_name
FROM {user_name |PUBLIC}

Eample:
REVOKE SELECT ON employee FROM user1;

REVOKE a SELECT privilege on employee table from

user1

user1 will not be able to SELECT data from that table

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 TCL (Transaction Control Language)
COMMIT command

•COMMIT command is used to permanently save any transaction

into the database.

•When we use any DML command like INSERT, UPDATE or

DELETE, the changes made by these commands are not
permanent, until the current session is closed, the changes made
by these commands can be rolled back.

•To avoid that, we use the COMMIT command to mark the

changes as permanent.

•Following is commit command's syntax,

commit;
ROLLBACK command

•This command restores the database to last commited state.

•If we have used the UPDATE command to make some changes

into the database, and realise that those changes were not required,
then we can use the ROLLBACK command to rollback those
changes, if they were not commited using the COMMIT command.
AND, OR, NOT and IN Operators

Question: Find the names of sailors who have reserved boat number
103

Query: SELECT sname

FROM Sailors S, Reserves R
WHERE S.sid=R.sid AND R.bid=103

Output:
SNAME
Dustin
Lubber
Horatio
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Question: Find the names of sailors who have reserved a red or green
boat

Query: SELECT sname

FROM Sailors S, Reserves R, Boats B
WHERE S.sid=R.sid AND R.bid=B.Bid
AND (B.color=‘red’ OR B.color=‘green’);

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IN

Used to check whether an attribute value matches a value

contained within a set of listed values

Question: Find all sailors whose age is in the list of

values(15.0,33.2,45.7,63.5)

Query: SELECT *
FROM Sailors
WHERE age IN (15.0,33.2,45.7,63.5)
Output:

SID SNAME RATING AGE

95 Bob 3 63.5 21
NOT

Used to check whether an attribute value does not match

with a value contained in a set of listed values

Question: Find all sailors whose age is not present in the list of
values(15.0,33.2,45.7,63.5)

Query: SELECT *
FROM Sailors
WHERE age NOT IN (15.0,33.2,45.7,63.5)

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STRING operators

“%” character is used to match any substring

“_” character is used to match any character

Expresses patterns by using the ‘like’ comparison operator

Example1

SELECT *
FROM Sailors
WHERE sname LIKE '_u%'

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Output:
RATIN
SID SNAME AGE
G
22 Dustin 7 45
31 Lubber 8 55.5
Example2 58 Rusty 10 35

SELECT *
FROM Sailors
WHERE sname LIKE 'A_d_'

Output:
RATIN
SID SNAME AGE
G 24
SET operators

Operations such as union, intersect, minus and exists

operate on relations

Corresponding to relational-algebra operations U, ∩ and –

Relations participating in the operations must be

compatible; i.e., must have same set of attributes

<query 1> <set operator> <query 2>

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Example (union)
SELECT *
FROM Sailors
UNION
SELECT *
FROM Sailors1

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Example (intersect)
SELECT *
FROM Sailors
INTERSECT
SELECT *
FROM Sailors1

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Example (minus)
SELECT *
FROM Sailors
MINUS
SELECT *
FROM Sailors1

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Nested Queries

A nested query is a query that has another query embedded

within it

The embedded query is called a subquery

Example:

Find the names of sailors who have reserved boat 103

SELECT S.sname
FROM Sailors S
WHERE S.sid IN
(SELECT R.sid FROM Reserves R WHERE R.bid=103)
Find the names of sailors who have reserved a blue boat

SELECT S.sname
FROM Sailors S
WHERE S.sid IN
(SELECT R.sid FROM Reserves R
WHERE R.bid IN
(SELECT B.bid FROM Boats B WHERE
B.color='blue'))
Correlated Nested Queries

In Correlated Nested Queries, inner subquery could depend on

the row that is currently being examined in the outer query

Find the names of sailors who have reserved boat 103

Query:
SELECT S.sname
FROM Sailors S
WHERE EXISTS
(SELECT * FROM Reserves R WHERE
R.bid = 103 AND R.sid = S.sid)
The EXISTS operator is another set comparison operator,
such as IN

It allows us to test whether a set is nonempty.

Thus, for each Sailor row S, we test whether the set of

Reserves rows R such that R.bid = 103 AND S.sid = R.sid
is nonempty. If so, sailor S has reserved boat 103, and we
retrieve the name

The occurrence of S in the subquery (in the form of the

literal S.sid) is called a correlation, and such queries are
called correlated queries
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COMPARISION OPERATORS

These operators can be used in ‘WHERE’ clause and

‘HAVING’ clause
SYMBOL MEANING
= Equal to
< Less than
<= Less than or equal to
> Grater than
>= Greater than or equal to
<> or != or ^= Not equal to

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SET-COMPARISION OPERATORS

EXISTS, IN along with their negated versions

SQL also suports op ANY and op ALL

Where op is one of the arithmetic comparison operators

(<,<=,>,>=,<>,=)

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Example
Find sailors whose rating is better than some sailor called
Horatio
SELECT S1.sname, S1.rating
FROM Sailors S1
WHERE S1.rating > ANY (SELECT S2.rating FROM
Sailors S2 WHERE S2.sname='Horatio' )

SNAME RATING
Rusty 10
Zorba 10
Horatio 9
Lubber 8
Andy 8 35
Find sailors whose rating is better than every sailor called
Horatio

SELECT S1.sname, S1.rating

FROM Sailors S1
WHERE S1.rating > ALL ( SELECT S2.rating FROM
Sailors S2 WHERE S2.sname='Horatio' )

SNAME RATING
Rusty 10
Zorba 10

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AGGREGATE OPERATORS
In addition to simply retrieving data, we often want to
perform some computation or summarization

SQL supports the following aggregate operators which can

be applied on any column, say A, of a relation(table):

1.COUNT ([DISTINCT] A): The number of (unique)

values in the A column

2.SUM ([DISTINCT] A): The sum of all (unique) values

in the A column

3.AVG ([DISTINCT] A): The average of all (unique)

values in the A column 37
4. MAX (A): The maximum value in the A column

5. MIN (A): The minimum value in the A column

Note: not specify DISTINCT in conjunction with MIN or

MAX

Examples:
Question: Find the average age of all sailors
Query:
SELECT AVG (age)
FROM Sailors
Output:
AVG(AGE)
36.9
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Question: Find the name and age of the oldest sailor
Query:
SELECT S1.sname, S1.age
FROM Sailors S1
WHERE S1.age = ( SELECT MAX (S2.age) FROM Sailors
S2 )
Output:
SNAME AGE
Bob 63.5
Question: Count the number of sailors
Query:
SELECT COUNT (*)
FROM Sailors
Output: COUNT(*)
10 39
The GROUP BY and HAVING Clauses

GROUP BY used to apply aggregate operators to each

number of groups of rows in a relation

HAVING is used to place a condition, which is applied on

the groups of rows

general form:
SELECT [DISTINCT] fieldname
FROM table names
GROUP BY fieldname
HAVING group-condition
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Examples
Question: Find the number of sailors belongs to each rating
level
Query:
SELECT rating, COUNT(rating)
FROM Sailors
GROUP BY rating RATING COUNT(RATING)
Output: 1 1
3 2
7 2
8 2
9 1
10 2 41
Question: Find the age of the youngest sailor for each rating
level
Query:
SELECT rating, MIN (age)
FROM Sailors
GROUP BY rating
Output:
RATING MIN(AGE)
1 33
3 25.5
7 35
8 25.5
9 35
10 16 42
Question: Find the age of the youngest sailor for each rating
level, which is greater than 7

Query:
SELECT rating, MIN(age)
FROM Sailors
GROUP BY rating
HAVING rating>7

Output:
RATING MIN(AGE)
8 25.5
9 35
10 16
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ORDER BY

The order by clause is used to sort the tuples in a query

result based on the values of some attributes
Example

Question: display the sailors table in the ascending order

of sname

Query:
SELECT *
FROM Sailors
ORDER BY sname

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Output:
RATIN
SID SNAME AGE
G
32 Andy 8 25.5
85 Art 3 25.5
95 Bob 3 63.5
29 Brutus 1 33
22 Dustin 7 45
64 Horatio 7 35
74 Horatio 9 35
31 Lubber 8 55.5
58 Rusty 10 35 45
Question: display the sailors table in the descending order of
sname

Query:
SELECT *
FROM Sailors
ORDER BY sname DESC

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Output:
RATIN
SID SNAME AGE
G
71 Zorba 10 16
58 Rusty 10 35
31 Lubber 8 55.5
64 Horatio 7 35
74 Horatio 9 35
22 Dustin 7 45
29 Brutus 1 33
95 Bob 3 63.5
85 Art 3 25.5 47
 Null Values
Column values in a row are sometimes

 unknown (e.g., a rating has not been assigned)

or
 inapplicable (e.g., no spouse’s name)

SQL provides a special value null for such situations.

The result of any arithmetic expression involving null is null

Example: 5 + null returns null.

 Aggregate functions simply ignore nulls.

 But count(*) includes NULL values also

Example

Insert the row (98,john,null,39) to represent john into

sailors table

Query: INSERT INTO Sailors VALUES(98,‘john',null,39)

Query: SELECT *
FROM Sailors
Output:
RATIN
SID SNAME AGE
G
22 Dustin 7 45
29 Brutus 1 33
31 Lubber 8 55.5
32 Andy 8 25.5
58 Rusty 10 35
64 Horatio 7 35
71 Zorba 10 16
74 Horatio 9 35
85 Art 3 25.5
95 Bob 3 63.5 50
Comparisons using NULL values and AND,OR,NOT
connectives:

Any comparison with null returns unknown

Example: 5 < null or 6 + null or null = null

Three-valued logic using the truth value unknown:

OR: (unknown or true) = true, If both arguments are

(unknown or false) = unknown False OR is false
(unknown or unknown) = unknown

AND: (true and unknown) = unknown, If both arguments are

(false and unknown) = false, True AND is true
(unknown and unknown) = unknown

NOT: (not unknown) = unknown

SQL also provides a special comparison operator
IS NULL to test whether a column value is null

IS NULL

IS NOT NULL

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Example
Query:
SELECT *
FROM sailors
WHERE rating IS NULL
Output:

RATIN
SID SNAME AGE
G
98 Dan 39

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Impact on SQL Constructs

The arithmetic operations +, - ,* , / and = all return null

if one of their arguments is null

Example
Query:
SELECT sid, rating, sid+rating
FROM Sailors

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Output: SID RATING SID + RATING
22 7 29
29 1 30
31 8 39
32 8 40
58 10 68
64 7 71
71 10 81
74 9 83
85 3 88
95 3 98
98 - -
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COUNT(*) handles null values just like other values,
that is, they get counted

Example
Query:
SELECT COUNT(*)
FROM Sailors

Output:

COUNT(*)
11
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Disallowing Null Values

We can disallow null values by specifying NOT NULL as

part of the field definition, for example,

sname VARCHAR2(20) NOT NULL

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