1,000,000 ms-1 1,000,000

ms-1

■ How fast is Spaceship A approaching

Spaceship B?
■ Both Spaceships see the other approaching at
2,000,000 ms-1.
■ This is Classical Relativity.
 Einstein’s Special Relativity

0 ms-1

300,000,000
ms-1

1,000,000 ms-1
 Both spacemen measure the speed of the approaching ray of light.
 How fast do they measure the speed of light to be?
• Stationary man 300,000,000 ms-1
• Man travelling at 1,000,000 ms-1
– 301,000,000 ms-1?
– Wrong! The Speed of Light is
the same for all observers
 Observer in car

Here we can see the Effect of Reference frame on

the Observations taken by the observer.

Observer on earth
SPECIAL THEORY OF
RELATIVITY
“……..Undoubtedly mechanics was
a snapshot of slow and real motions,
while new physics is a snapshot of
fabulously swift and real
motions……..”

V.I.Lenin
Fundamentals of Physics ~
R.Resnick, D.Halliday,
Fifth Edition~ John Wiley & Sons,
Inc.~ Singapore.
Fundamentals of Modern Physics ~
Arthur Beiser ~ Fifth Edition ~1995
 Special Relativity
• Special Relativity
– Galilean transformation
– Basic Postulates.
– Lorentz transformation
• Length contraction
• Time dilation
• Rest mass is least, relativistic mass.
• Energy mass equivalence.
• Special Relativity: All motion is relative; the
speed of light in free space is the same for an
observer. (Einstein 1905)

• Frames of references; S and S’

– Inertial frame of reference; Newton’s law’s of
motion hold.
– No universal frame of reference. “absolute motion”

General relativity: Describes the relationship between

gravity and the geometrical structure. (not in syllabus)
What is an inertial frame of reference?

A frame of reference is a system of

co-ordinates. An inertial frame is one
that’s not accelerating.
Frames of Reference
2 Simple Postulates
• “The laws of physics are the same in
every inertial frame of reference”
– The Principle of Relativity

• “The speed of light in vacuum is the

same in all inertial frames of reference,
and is independent of the motion of the
source”
– Invariance of the speed of light
 First Postulate

“The laws of physics are the same in

every inertial frame of reference”
Spot the Difference?
 Newtonian Principle of Relativity

•If Newton’s laws are valid in one reference frame, then

they are also valid in another reference frame moving at a
uniform velocity relative to the first system.
•This is referred to as the Newtonian principle of
relativity or Galilean invariance.
S
y

O x
z

If the axes are also parallel, these frames are said to be Inertial
Coordinate Systems
Galilean-Newtonian Relativity
Experiment at rest Experiment in moving frame

Same result. Ball rises and ends up in the thrower’s hand. Ball in
the air the same length of time.
Experiment looks different from ground observer (parabolic
trajectory, speed as a function of time) and observer on the truck.
However, they both agree on the validity of Newton’s laws.
 Second Postulate
“The speed of light in vacuum is the same
in all inertial frames of reference, and is
independent of the motion of the source”

(Speed of light c = 3 x 108 metres/second

= 670,616,629 mph)
v
v
u-v
u
 c
v
 Galilean transformation:
• The equation relating the coordinates of a
particle in two inertial frames(whose
relative velocity is negligible in comparison
to the speed of light) are called
GALILEAN TRANSFORMATION.
The Galilean Transformation

•For a point P:
–In one frame S: P = (x, y, z, t)
–In another frame S’: P = (x’, y’, z’, t’)

S y P = (x, y, z, t)
P = (x’, y’, z’, t’)

x
z
 Inertial Frames S and S’

S’
S

• S is at rest and S’ is moving with velocity ‘v’

• Axes are parallel
• S and S’ are said to be INERTIAL COORDINATE
SYSTEMS 24
The Galilean Transformation
For a point P
 In system S: P = (x, y, z, t)
 In system S’: P = (x’, y’, z’, t’)
x
P

vt X’

S
K S’
K’ x’-axis
x-axis

25
 Conditions of the Galilean
Transformation
• Parallel axes
• K’ has a constant relative velocity in the x-direction
with respect to K

S S’

• Time (t) for all observers is a Fundamental invariant,

i.e., the same for all inertial observers
26
 The Inverse Relations

Step 1. Replace with .

Step 2. Replace “primed” quantities with
“unprimed” and “unprimed” with “primed.”



x  x  vt

S S’

27
 Numerical
An observer in the laboratory sees two particles colliding at
x = 20.5 m, y=0, z=0 and t= 7.2 s. What are the co
ordinates of this event in a frame moving at 30.5 m/s with
respect to the laboratory frame?

Ans: x’=-199.1 m, y’=0, z’=0 and t’=7.2s.

K y P = (x, y, z, t)
P = (x’, y’, z’, t’)

x
z
 The constancy of the speed of light
Consider the fixed system S and the moving system S’.
At t = 0, the origins and axes of both systems are coincident with
system S’ moving to the right along the x axis.
A flashbulb goes off at both origins when t = 0.
According to postulate 2, the speed of light will be c in both systems
and the wavefronts observed in both systems must be spherical.

S
 The constancy of the speed of light is not
compatible with Galilean transformations.
Spherical wavefronts in S:

Spherical wavefronts in S’:

Note that this cannot occur

in Galilean transformations: x  x  vt
y  y There are a couple
of extra terms (-
z  z 2xvt + v2t2) in the
primed frame.
t  t

x2  y2  z 2  ( x 2  2 xvt  v 2t 2 )  y 2  z 2  c 2t 2

 The Lorentz Transformations
The special set of linear transformations that:

preserve the constancy of the speed of light (c)

between inertial observers; with the assumption
that the time is not an absolute quantity

Therefore t  t

known as the Lorentz transformation equations

32
Derivation
Consider a system of two inertial frames of references S and S .

S: is at rest and S  : is a moving frame with constant velocity v relative to S
(x,y,z,t)  coordinates of event P for an observer O in the stationary frame S
(x ,y,z ,t )  coordinates of event P for an observer O  in the moving frame S 
Let x =(x-vt) ....(1) γ : proportionality constant.

According to first postulate of Special Theory of Relativity

Therefore x=(x +vt ) ....(2) where t  t 

According to second postulate of Special Theory of Relativity

The wavefront along x, x  axis must satisfy
x=ct and x =ct 
Thus substitute the value of x and x  in eq (1)and (2) respectively.
ct =(c-v)t and ct=(c+v)t 
1
Multiply these equations and solve it for   33
1 v / c
2 2
Derivation
x =(x-vt) ....(1) x=(x +vt ) ....(2)
From eq(1) and eq(2)
x
x  [  (x - vt)  vt ]   (x - vt)  vt 
or

x x x 1
 t =   t or t =t  (1  2 )
v v v 
x  1
similarly 
t=t  (1  2 )
v 

xv x v
t 2 t  2
t  c c
t
v2 v2
1 2 1 2
c c
Lorentz Transformation Equations
Properties of γ

1

1  v2 / c2
 The complete Lorentz
Transformation
x  vt x  vt 
x  x
1  v2 / c2 Length 1  v2 / c2
y  y contraction y  y
z  z Simultaneity z  z
t  vx / c 2 problems  
t  vx / c 2
t  t
1 v / c
2 2
Time 1 v / c
2 2

dilation

If v << c, i.e., v/c ≈ 0 and  ≈ 1, yielding the familiar Galilean transformation.

Space and time are now linked, and the frame velocity cannot exceed c.
 Consequence of Relativity

The Major Consequences To This Theory

are:-

Length Contraction

Time Dilation

Mass Expansion
Lorentz Contraction
v = 10% c

A fast-
moving v = 80% c
plane at
different
v = 99% c
speeds.

v = 99.9% c
 Length contraction
A rod is lying along the x  axis of the moving frame S 
In S  frame, real length
Lo =x 2 -x1 Y
Y’
Using Larentz Transformation S
x 2  x1 L
L0   X
2 2
v v
1 2 1 2 Z X’
c c Z’
v2  v2  S’ v
or L  L o 1  2 ,1  2   1, So L  L o
c  c 
L is the observed length (apparent length) of the rod
in S frame. Motion produces elastic froces which in turn
produce contraction in atomic constitution of matter.
 Length contraction
Therefore L=Lo 1  v 2 / c 2
The length (Lo ) of an object in motion with respect
to an observer (in S Frame) appears to be shorter,
this phenomenon is known as Lorentz FitzGerald
contraction or Length Contraction.
Case I : if v=0, L= ?
Case II: if v=c, L=?
Exercise : Find L when Lo =1m
and v=0.9c.
Imp: Prove that
x 2  y 2  z 2  c 2 t 2  x  2  y 2  z  2  c 2 t  2
under Lorentz Transformation
 Time Travel!

• Time between ‘ticks’ = distance / speed of light

• Light in the moving clock covers more

distance…
– …but the speed of light is constant…
– …so the clock ticks slower!

V • Moving clocks run more slowly!

Time Dilation

2Lo

Lo
 Time Dilation
The time interval required for the
pulse to travel from O ' to mirror
back is
2Lo
distance traveled 2 Lo
t p  
speed c
The proper timeinterval is thetime interval Lo

betweentwo events measured by an observer

who sees theevents occur at the same point
in space.
Time Dilation

2Lo
 Time Dilation
According to the second postulate of the special theory of relativity, both
observers must measure c for the speed of light. Because the light travels
farther according to O, the time interval measured by O is longer than
the time interval measured by O'. To obtain a relationship between these
two time intervals, we use this figure
2 2
 ct   vt 
      Lo
2

 2   2  Lo
2Lo 2Lo
Solve for t t= 
c v
2 2
v
2
c 1 2
c
t p 1
Using Equation1 t   t p ; Where  
2 2
v v
1 2 1 2
c c
Because γ is always greater than unity,thus the time interval Δt measured by
anobserver moving withrespect to a clock is longer than the time interval Δt p
measured by anobserver at rest withrespect to the clock.
Time Dilation
Let us see the effect of Time dilation on a Radio
active mass.
When the Disintegrating Mass is at Rest w.r.t. the Observer.
Here Each Dot in the radioactive atom represents an atom

OOOO……..
So in 10 seconds 2 out of 10
atoms are left.
Here the active mass is moving at an velocity
comparable to c.

When the Disintegrating Mass is at Moving w.r.t. the Observer.

Here Each Dot in the radioactive atom represents an atom

Impossible!!!!
How in the same time i.e.
10 s, 5 atoms are left out of
10 atoms.
 Numerical
A particle with a proper life time of 1 µs moves
at 0.9c. What is its lifetime as measured by
observers in the laboratory?

Ans:2.294 μs.
 What is muons?

On Earth, most naturally occurring muons are created by cosmic rays,

which consist mostly of protons, many arriving from deep space at very
high energy.

About 10,000 muons reach every square meter of the earth's surface a
minute; these charged particles form as by-products of cosmic rays
colliding with molecules in the upper atmosphere.

Traveling at relativistic speeds, muons can penetrate tens of meters into

rocks and other matter before attenuating as a result of absorption or
deflection by other atoms.
 Example of Time Dilation
Muon is created The life time of μ mesons is 2.2 μs and their
speed 0.998c, so that they can cover only a
distance of 0.998c x 2.2 μs or 0.66km in
their life time, and yet they are found in
6.6102 m
profusion at sea level, i.e., at a depth of 10.4
km from the upper atmosphere where they
are produced. How may this be explained
on the basis of (i) length contraction (ii) time
Muon decays dilation?
 Example of Time Dilation
Muon is created
(i) Length contraction:
t p  2.2  s , L =2.2  s  0.998c  0.66km
Distance on the earth,
L  L o 1  v 2 / c 2  L o  10.42km  10km

(ii) Time Dilation

tp
t=  t  34.8 s
1 v / c
2 2

Muon decays  distance travelled on the earth

 34.8 s  0.998c  10.42km  10km
Twin paradox
 Twin paradox
Question: Twins A and B are 20 years each. Twin A travels towards a star 30 light years
away at a speed 0.8c. He then returns home. Twin B remains at the home. What are the
two observations different?
2l
A. In B's frame of reference, The time spent in journey is t= o  75 years
t 0.8c
The time spent by A t p   75  0.6  45 years

Hence in B's frame of reference, Age of A=20+45=65 years
Age of B=20+75=95 years
B. From A's point of view, In his moving frame of reference, length appears to be contracted
2
v
L  Lo 1  2  30 1   0.8   18 light years
2

c
L 18
Thus timetakeninthe outward trip is   22.5 year
v 0.8
Similarly time taken in the return trip is 22.5 years.
Therefore time lapsed in A frame of reference t p =45 years.
For B on the ground t=t p  45  0.6  75 years
Hence in A's frame of reference, Age of A=20+45=65 years
Age of B=20+75=95 years
 Relativity of Simultaneity
Consider two lights which can be switched on at the same
time.

A B
If Dobson is exactly the same distance from bulb A as
bulb B, and is not moving, he will see both lights go on
at the same time.
The event of the lights turning on appears to Dobson to
be simultaneous.
Now suppose Dobson is moving to the right. At the
instant he is at the center, the lights are switched on.
What will Dobson see?

A B
The relativity of simultaneity:

"Events which are simultaneous in one reference frame

may not be simultaneous in another."
Lorentz Consequence of Simultaneity of Events
Since space and time are relative, the question arises; Will the two events occurring
simultaneously in S appear simultaneously in S' or vice-versa? The answer is No.
Consider two inertial frames S and S'. S' moving with velocity v relative to S
along positive direction of x-axis. If t is the time of an event at position x in
frame S, time t' in frame S' is given by
vx
t 2
t'  c
v2
1 2
c
Suppose two events occurs simultaneously at instant (t 1 = t 2 ) at different positions
x1 and x2 (x1  x2 ) in reference frame S. The corresponding times t1' and t2'
in frame S' are given by
vx1 vx2 v
t1  2
c & t '
t2  2
c ;
Therefore
 t2  t1   2  x1  x2 
t1 '  t 2 ' t1 '  c
2 2
v v2 v2
1 2 1 2 1 2
c c c
 v
2  1
x  x2 
But t1  t 2 &  x1  x2   t 2 ' t1 '  c  0;  t 2 '  t1 '
2
v
1 2
c
That is two events simultaneously t1  t 2 at different positions  x1  x2 
in frame S are, in general, not simultaneously in another reference frame S'.

Thus the two events do not appear simultaneous in S'.

Or
Simultaneity is not absolute.

There is nothing like “absolute time” which is same for all

observer. Time is relative and is different for observers in
 Velocity Addition
Let us consider, something is moving along X axis
relative to both S (rest) and S’ (moving with velocity v).
An observer in S measures three component of velocity to
be u = dx , u = dy , u = dz  ˆ ˆ ˆ
x
dt
y
dt
z u=iu +ju +ku
dt x y z

To an observer in S’ they are

dx  dy dz   ˆ ' ˆ ' ˆ '

ux = , 
uy = , 
uz = u'=iux +juy +kuz
dt  dt  dt 
By differentiating the Lorentz transform equations for x’,
y’, z’ and t’, we obtain

2
dx-vdt dt-vdx/c
dx = , dy=dy, dz =dz, dt =
1-v 2 /c 2 1-v 2 /c 2
 Velocity Addition
Now we can write

dx  dx-vdt dx/dt-v ux -v
ux = = = =
dt  dt-vdx/c 2
1-v/c dx/dt 1-vux /c 2
2

This is relativistic velocity transformation equation.

Its Inverse transformation equation  v = -v  is

ux +v
ux =
1+vux /c 2
 Velocity Addition
By applying the same technique we can
obtain transformation for uy and uz as

dy dy 1-v 2 /c 2
uy = =
dt  1-vdx/c 2
dy/dt 1-v 2 /c 2
=
1-v/c 2 dx/dt
2 2 Similarly,
uy 1-v /c
uy =
1-vux /c 2 uz 1-v 2 /c 2
uz =
1-vux /c 2
 Example
Let u x  c , means if a ray of light is emitted in the moving reference
frame S’ in the opposite direction of motion relative to S, an observer
in frame S will measure the velocity

u x  v cv c(c  v)
ux    c
1  vu x / c 1  vc / c
2 2
(c  v)

Try more numerical

1. Two photons approach each other. What is their relative
velocity?

2. One photon and one electron (0.9 c) approach each other.

3. Two electrons (0.7 c) approach each other.

 Relativity of Mass

According to Newtonian mechanics the

mass of a body is unaffected with change
in velocity.

But space and time change……..

Therefore “mass” of a body is no longer be

unaffected
 Relativity of Mass
Here we will see how mass changes with velocity.
 Consider two frames S and S’.
 Consider an elastic collision between two perfectly elastic
spherical balls A and B in S’ and view it from frame S.
 Relativity of Mass
Let two balls having mass m1 and m2 are traveling with velocities u’
and –u’ parallel to x-axis in system S’.
Suppose two bodies collide and collapse into one
After collision they are at rest in system S’( as the velocity of two
was equal and opposite).
 Relativity of Mass
Let us see this collision from frame S.
As per law of addition of velocities, the velocities u1 and u2 in frame
S corresponding to u’ and –u’ in S’ are
u ' v u ' v
u1  ...(1) and u 2  ...(2)
u 'v u 'v
1 2 1 2
c c

Applying the principle of conservation of

momentum:
m1u1 + m2u2 = (m1+m2) v
 Relativity of Mass
After collision the two bodies collapse into one and move with
velocity v as S’ is moving with velocity v w.r.t. S. (This is observed
from S)
m1u1  m 2 u 2  (m1  m 2 )v ....(3)
substituting the value of u1 and u2
u ' v u ' v
m1  m2  (m1  m 2 )v
1  (u ' v / c )
2
1  (u ' v / c )
2


m1 
u ' v  
 v  m2 v 
  u ' v  
2 
 1  (u ' v / c 2
)   1  (u ' v / c )
m1 1  (u ' v / c 2 )
 ....(4)
m 2 1  (u ' v / c 2 )
Now squaring eq(1)
2
 u ' v 
u 
2
1 2 
 1  (u ' v / c )
 Relativity of Mass

u12 1  v / c 1  u  / c 
2 2 2 2

1- 2 
c 1  (u ' v / c ) 
2 2

or 1  (u ' v / c 2 ) 
1  v 2
/ c 2 1  u 2 / c 2 
1  (u12 / c 2 )

Similarly, 1- (u ' v / c 2 ) 
1  v 2
/ c 2 1  u 2 / c 2 
1  (u 22 / c 2 )
Substituting these values in eq (4), we get
m1 1  (u ' v / c 2 ) 1  (u 22 / c 2 )
 
2
m 2 1- (u ' v / c ) 1  (u12 / c 2 )
If the body of mass m2 is at rest or moving with zero velocity, in
stationary frame S that is u2  0, before collision , m o the rest mass
mo
of the body , m1 
1  (u12 / c 2 )
 Relativity of Mass

In commonly used notation m1  m, m 2  mo and u1  v

m 1 mo
 or m
mo 1  v 2
/c 2
 1  v 2
/c 2


This is the relative formula for variation of mass with

velocity.
m0 is called the rest mass and m is the effective mass.
 Relativity of Mass
mo
m
1  v 2
/c 2

When v is small as compared to c, v2/c2 <<<1
 m = m0 i.e. at velocities much smaller than c the
mass of the moving object is same as the mass at
rest.
When v is comparable to c, the 1- v2/c2 < 1 , m > m0
 mass of the moving object is greater than at rest.

When v c, v2/c2 1 , so m =  or imaginary. This is non

sense concept.
Relation between Mass and Energy
Kinetic Energy = Total Energy - Rest mass Energy

m0 c 2
K  mc  m0c 
2 2
 m0c 2

1 v / c
2 2

Limiting Case: When v << c

1
Show that K .E  m0 v 2

2
Limiting Case: When v  c
K.E. tends to infinity.  to accelerate the particle to the
speed of light infinite amount of work would be needed to be
done .
 s s d ( mo v) mv
KE   Fds   ds   vd ( mo v )
0 0 dt 0

Integrating by parts (  xdy  xy   ydx)

o
o

o
o

o
o

o o o
 Relativity of Mass
mo
Relativistic mass m Mass at rest.

Proof: do it yourself
1  v 2
/c 2

Note: m0 c 2
1.Length contraction, Total Energy  E  mc  2

2.Time Dilation 1  v2 / c2
3.Rest mass is least Rest mass energy or Potential energy  m0 c 2

Numerical: A stationary body explodes in to two fragments

each of mass 1 kg that move apart at speeds of 0.6c relative
to the original body. Find the mass of the original body.

Ans: 2.5 kg
Examples of mass-energy equivalence
(1) Pair Production: when a photon of energy equal to or greater
than 1.02 MeV passes close to an atomic nucleus, it disappears
and a pair of electron and positron is created i.e.
 (Gamma Photon) =e- (electron) + e+
(positron)
Positron is a particle of same mass as electron but equal and
opposite charge.

(2) Pair Annihilation: when an electron and positron come close

together, they annihilate each other and equal amount of energy is
produced in the form of a pair of - ray photons.

e- (electron) + e+ (positron) =  + 
Examples of mass-energy equivalence
(1) Pair Production: when a photon of energy equal to or greater
than 1.02 MeV passes close to an atomic nucleus, it disappears
and a pair of electron and positron is created i.e.

 (Gamma Photon) =e- (electron) + e+

(positron)

Positron is a particle of same mass as electron but equal and

opposite charge.

(2) Pair Annihilation: when an electron and positron come close

together, they annihilate each other and equal amount of energy is
produced in the form of a apir of - ray photons.

e- (electron) + e+ (positron) =  + 
 Relation between Total energy (E) and
Now we have
momentum(p)
m0 c 2 m 2 4
0c
E  mc 2  E 
2

1  v2 / c2 1  v 2
/ c 2

2 2 2
m0 v m c v
and p  mv  pc 
2 2 0

1  v2 / c2 1  v 2
/ c 2

2 4 2 2 2
m c m 0 v c
E p c 
2 2 2 0

(1  v / c ) (1  v 2 / c 2 )
2 2

m0 c  m0 v c
2 4 2 2 2 m0 2 c 4 1  v 2 / c 2 
E pc 
2 2 2

(1  v / c )
2 2
(1  v 2 / c 2 )
E 2  p 2 c 2  m0 2 c 4
E  m02 c 4  p 2c 2
Relation between Kinetic energy (K) and momentum (p)
K  E  m0 c 2
But, E= mo2 c 4  p 2 c 2
 K= mo2 c 4  p 2 c 2  m0 c 2
 pc 
2 2
1/2

or, K= 1  2 4   1 m0 c 2
 mo c  
 p 2c 2  
If v<<c, that is , p<<moc2 , then K m0 c 1 
2
2 4
 ...   1
 2mo c  
Neglecting higher order terms of binomial expansion, we get
p2
K As v<<c, then m o =m
2mo  Limiting value of
p2 Relativistic Kinetic Energy
K (Classical Expression)
2m
Limiting value of Relativistic kinetic energy
Relativistic kinetic energy is
K  mc 2  m 0 c 2
 v 2  1/2 
 1  2   1 m 0 c 2
 c  
Expanding by Binomial theorem
 1 v2 3 v4 
K  1  2
 4
 .............  1 m
 0 c 2

 2 c 8 c 
If v<<c i.e. v/c<<1 So
1 v2 1
K m 0 c 2
 m 0 v 2

2 c2 2
This is expression for kinetic energy in non relativistic case.
Mass less Particle?
m0c2
We have E  mc 2  and
v2
1 2
c
m0 v
p  mv 
v2
1 2
c

1) When m0=o and v<c, E=0, p=0

2) When m0=o and v=c, E=0/0, p=0/0

indeterminate form, hence must have E and p.

Mass less Particle? Answer : is Photon.
A particle which has zero rest mass
E  m02 c 4  p 2 c 2    (1)
For massless particle , m o  0
E
E  p c  pc
2 2
or p=    (2)
c
Since p = mv  Ev / c 2      (3)
From (2) and (3) vc
i.e. the velocity of the massless particle is same as that of
light in free space.
The energy of the particle , E  pc  mc 2
Where m is the mass equivalent to energy E, that is , m  E / c 2
Examples of massless particles : Photon, Neutrions, Gravitons etc.
 Units of energy, mass and momentum

• Energy; eV, keV, MeV, GeV

• Mass; MeV/c2,
• Momentum: MeV/c
• Rest mass Energy of
– Electron: m0c2=0.51MeV
– Proton: m0c2=938 MeV
– Neutron: m0c2=931 MeV
– Photon: m0c2=0 as massless particle
Ex : Find the mass and speed of 2MeV electron.

m=3.55  10-30kg
v=2.90  108 ms-1

Ex: Calculate the speed of an electron accelerated through a potential

difference of 1.53106 volts.

Given c=3108 m/sec, mo=9.110-31Kg, and e= 1.610-19 Coulomb

v=0.968c
Ex: A body whose specific heat is 0.2kcal/kg-oC is heated through
100oC. Find the % increase in its mass.

% increase =9.3310-11 %
 Summary
• Special theory of relativity
– Basic Postulates
• Galilean transformation equations: v << c
• Lorentz transformation equations: v≈c
• Length contraction: 2
L  L0 1  v2
• Time dilation: c
t0
t 
2
1  v2
• Addition of velocities c

• Rest mass is least

m0
m 
2
• Energy –mass relationship 1  v2
c
• Mass-less particle. E  m02c 4  p 2c 2
Summary
Postulates of STR : Newton’s laws hold good, Invariance of speed of light
 GTE (v<<c) : x  x  vt ; y  y ; z   z ; t   t
1 t  xv / c 2
 LTE(v  c) x  (x  vt) ; y  y ; z  z , ; t  
1 v / c
2 2
1  v2 / c2
t0
 Length Contraction L  L 0 1  vc2  Time Dilation t 
2

1  vc2
2

ux +v uy 1-v 2 /c 2 uz 1-v 2 /c 2

 Velocity addition ux = uy = uz =
1+vux /c 2 1-vux /c 2 1-vux /c 2

m0
•Rest mass is least: m 
1  vc2
2

Energy mass relationship: E  m02 c 4  p 2c 2

for mass less particle E  pc