Libraries and Procedures

COE 205
Computer Organization and Assembly Language

Computer Engineering Department

King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals

 Presentation Outline

 Link Library Overview

 The Book's Link Library
 Runtime Stack and Stack Operations
 Defining and Using Procedures
 Program Design Using Procedures

Libraries and Procedures COE 205 – KFUPM

© Muhamed Mudawar – slide 2
 Link Library Overview
 A link library is a file containing procedures that have
been assembled into machine code
 Can be constructed from one or more object (.OBJ) files

 Textbook provides link libraries to simplify Input/Output

 Irvine32.lib is for programs written in 32-bit protected mode
 Irvine16.lib is for programs written in 16-bit real-address mode

 You can also construct your own link library

 Start with one or more assembler source files (extension .ASM)
 Assemble each source file into an object file (extension .OBJ)
 Create an empty link library file (extension .LIB)
 Add the OBJ files to the library file using the Microsoft LIB utility
Libraries and Procedures COE 205 – KFUPM
© Muhamed Mudawar – slide 3
 Procedure Prototypes & Include File
 Before calling an external procedure in a library …
 You should make the external procedure visible to your program
 To make an external procedure visible, use a prototype
 Examples of Procedure Prototypes
ClrScr PROTO ; Clear the screen
WriteChar PROTO ; Write a character
WriteInt PROTO ; Write a signed integer
ReadString PROTO ; Read a string
 The procedure prototypes are placed in an include file
 The Irvine32.inc include file (extension .INC) contains the
prototypes of the procedures that are defined in Irvine32.lib
 The INCLUDE directive copies the content of the include file
Libraries and Procedures COE 205 – KFUPM
© Muhamed Mudawar – slide 4
 Calling a Library Procedure
 To call a library procedure, use the CALL instruction
 Some procedures require input arguments
 We can pass arguments in registers
 The following example displays "1A8C" on the console
Irvine32.inc
...
Crlf PROTO
WriteHex PROTO
...
INCLUDE Irvine32.inc
.code
mov ax, 1A8Ch ; ax = argument
call WriteHex ; Display eax in hex
call Crlf ; Display end of line

Libraries and Procedures COE 205 – KFUPM

© Muhamed Mudawar – slide 5
 Linking to a Library
 Your program links to Irvine32.lib
 The link32.exe executable file is the 32-bit linker
 The linker program combines a program's object file with one or
more object files and link libraries
 To link myprog.obj to Irvine32.lib & kernel32.lib type …
link32 myprog.obj Irvine32.lib kernel32.lib
links to
 If a procedure you are calling is Your program Irvine32.lib
not in the link library, the linker links to
issues an error message can link to
kernel32.lib
 Kernel32.dll is called a dynamic
link library, part of MS-Windows. executes
It contains procedures that
perform character-base I/O kernel32.dll

Libraries and Procedures COE 205 – KFUPM

© Muhamed Mudawar – slide 6
 Next . . .

 Link Library Overview

 The Book's Link Library
 Runtime Stack and Stack Operations
 Defining and Using Procedures
 Program Design Using Procedures

Libraries and Procedures COE 205 – KFUPM

© Muhamed Mudawar – slide 7
 The Book's Link Library
 The book's link library Irvine32.lib consists of …
 Input procedures: ReadInt, ReadChar, ReadString, …
 Output procedures: Clrscr, WriteInt, WriteHex, WriteString, …
 Dumping registers and memory: DumpRegs and DumpMem
 Random number generation: Randomize, Random32, …
 Cursor control procedures: GetMaxXY and Gotoxy
 Miscellaneous procedures: SetTextColor, Delay, …

 Console Window
 Text-only window created by MS-Windows (cmd.exe program)
 The Irvine32.lib writes output to the console (standard output)
 The Irvine32.lib reads input from the keyboard (standard input)
Libraries and Procedures COE 205 – KFUPM
© Muhamed Mudawar – slide 8
 Output Procedures
Procedure Description
Clrscr Clears screen, locates cursor at upper left corner.
Crlf Writes end of line sequence (CR,LF) to standard output.
WriteChar Writes character in register AL to standard output.
WriteString Writes a null-terminated string to standard output.
String address should be passed in register EDX.

WriteHex Writes AX in hexadecimal format to standard output.

WriteInt Writes AX in signed decimal format to standard output.
WriteDec Writes AX in unsigned decimal format to standard output.
WriteBin Writes AX in binary format to standard output.

Libraries and Procedures COE 205 – KFUPM

© Muhamed Mudawar – slide 9
 Example: Displaying a String
Displaying a null-terminated string
Moving the cursor to the beginning of the next line

.data
str1 BYTE "Assembly language is easy!",0
.code
mov dx, OFFSET str1
call WriteString
call Crlf

Adding the CR/LF control characters to the string definition

.data
str1 BYTE "Assembly language is easy!",13,10,0
.code
mov dx, OFFSET str1 CR LF
call WriteString No need to call Crlf
Libraries and Procedures COE 205 – KFUPM
© Muhamed Mudawar – slide 10
 Example: Displaying an Integer
.code
mov ax, -1000
call WriteBin ; display binary
call Crlf
call WriteHex ; display hexadecimal
call Crlf
call WriteInt ; display signed decimal
call Crlf
call WriteDec ; display unsigned decimal
call Crlf

Sample output
1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1100 0001 1000
FFFFFC18
-1000
4294966296
Libraries and Procedures COE 205 – KFUPM
© Muhamed Mudawar – slide 11
 Input Procedures
Procedure Description
ReadChar Reads a char from keyboard and returns it in the AL register.
The character is NOT echoed on the screen.
ReadHex Reads a 32-bit hex integer and returns it in the EAX register.
Reading stops when the user presses the [Enter] key.
No leading spaces. No error checking is performed.
ReadInt Reads a 32-bit signed integer and returns it in EAX.
Leading spaces are ignored. Optional + or – is allowed.
Error checking is performed (error message) for invalid input.
ReadDec Reads a 32-bit unsigned integer and returns it in EAX.
ReadString Reads a string of characters from keyboard.
Additional null-character is inserted at the end of the string.
EDX = address of array where input characters are stored.
ECX = maximum characters to be read + 1 (for null byte)
Return EAX = count of non-null characters read.
Libraries and Procedures COE 205 – KFUPM
© Muhamed Mudawar – slide 12
 Example: Reading a String
Before calling ReadString …
EDX should have the address of the string.
ECX specifies the maximum number of input chars + 1 (null byte).

.data
inputstring BYTE 21 DUP(0) ; extra 1 for null byte
actualsize DWORD 0

.code
mov dx, OFFSET inputstring
mov cx, SIZEOF inputstring
call ReadString
mov actualsize, ax

Actual number of characters read is returned in EAX

A null byte is automatically appended at the end of the string
Libraries and Procedures COE 205 – KFUPM
© Muhamed Mudawar – slide 13
 Dumping Registers and Memory
 DumpRegs
 Writes AX, BX, CX, and DX on first line in hexadecimal
 Writes SI, DI, BP, and SP on second line in hexadecimal
 Writes IP, FLAGS, CF, SF, ZF, and OF on third line

 DumpMem
 Writes a range of memory to standard output in hexadecimal
 SI = starting address
 CX = number of elements to write
 BX = element size (1, 2, or 4)

Libraries and Procedures COE 205 – KFUPM

© Muhamed Mudawar – slide 14
 Example: Dumping a Word Array
.data
array db 2 DUP (0, 10, 1234, 3CFFh)

.code
mov si, OFFSET array
mov cx, LENGTHOF array
mov bx, TYPE array
call DumpMem

Console Output
Dump of offset 00405000
-------------------------------
0000 000A 04D2 3CFF 0000 000A 04D2 3CFF

Libraries and Procedures COE 205 – KFUPM

© Muhamed Mudawar – slide 15
 Random Number Generation
 Randomize
 Seeds the random number generator with the current time
 The seed value is used by Random32 and RandomRange

 Random32
 Generates an unsigned pseudo-random 32-bit integer
 Returns value in EAX = random (0 to FFFFFFFFh)

 RandomRange
 Generates an unsigned pseudo-random integer from 0 to n – 1
 Call argument: EAX = n
 Return value in EAX = random (0 to n – 1)
Libraries and Procedures COE 205 – KFUPM
© Muhamed Mudawar – slide 16
 Example on Random Numbers
 Generate and display 5 random numbers from 0 to 999
mov cx, 5 ; loop counter
L1: mov ax, 1000 ; range = 0 to 999
call RandomRange ; ax = random integer
call WriteDec ; display it
call Crlf ; one number per line
loop L1

Console Output
194
702
167
257
607
Libraries and Procedures COE 205 – KFUPM
© Muhamed Mudawar – slide 17
 Additional Library Procedures
Procedure Description
WaitMsg Displays "Press [Enter] to Continue …" and waits for user.
SetTextColor Sets the color for all subsequent text output.
Bits 0 – 3 of AX = foreground color.
Bits 4 – 7 of AX = background color.
Delay Delay program for a given number of milliseconds.
AX = number of milliseconds.
GetMseconds Return in AX the milliseconds elapsed since midnight.
Gotoxy Locates cursor at a specific row and column on the console.
DH = row number
DL = column number
GetMaxXY Return the number of columns and rows in console window buffer
Return value DH = current number of rows
Return value DL = current number of columns
Libraries and Procedures COE 205 – KFUPM
© Muhamed Mudawar – slide 18
 Example on TextColor
Display a null-terminated string with
yellow characters on a blue background
.data
str1 BYTE "Color output is easy!",0
.code
mov ax, yellow + (blue * 16)
call SetTextColor
call Clrscr
mov dx, OFFSET str1
call WriteString
call Crlf

The colors defined in Irvine32.inc are:

black, white, brown, yellow, blue, green, cyan, red, magenta, gray, lightBlue,
lightGreen, lightCyan, lightRed, lightMagenta, and lightGray.
Libraries and Procedures COE 205 – KFUPM
© Muhamed Mudawar – slide 19
 Measuring Program Execution Time
.data
time BYTE "Execution time in milliseconds: ",0
start DWORD ? ; start execution time
.code
main PROC
call GetMseconds ; EAX = milliseconds since midnight
mov start, ax ; save starting execution time
call WaitMsg ; Press [Enter] to continue ...
mov ax, 2000 ; 2000 milliseconds
call delay ; pause for 2 seconds
lea dx, time
call WriteString
call GetMseconds
sub ax, start
call WriteDec
exit
main ENDP
END main
Libraries and Procedures COE 205 – KFUPM
© Muhamed Mudawar – slide 20
 Next . . .

 Link Library Overview

 The Book's Link Library
 Runtime Stack and Stack Operations
 Defining and Using Procedures
 Program Design Using Procedures

Libraries and Procedures COE 205 – KFUPM

© Muhamed Mudawar – slide 21
 What is a Stack?
 Stack is a Last-In-First-Out (LIFO) data structure
 Analogous to a stack of plates in a cafeteria
 Plate on Top of Stack is directly accessible
 Two basic stack operations
 Push: inserts a new element on top of the stack
 Pop: deletes top element from the stack
 View the stack as a linear array of elements
 Insertion and deletion is restricted to one end of array
 Stack has a maximum capacity
 When stack is full, no element can be pushed
 When stack is empty, no element can be popped
Libraries and Procedures COE 205 – KFUPM
© Muhamed Mudawar – slide 22
 Runtime Stack
 Runtime stack: array of consecutive memory locations
 Managed by the processor using two registers
 Stack Segment register SS
 Not modified in protected mode, SS points to segment descriptor
 Stack Pointer register ESP
 For 16-bit real-address mode programs, SP register is used

 ESP register points to the top of stack

 Always points to last data item placed on the stack
 Only words and doublewords can be pushed and popped
 But not single bytes
 Stack grows downward toward lower memory addresses
Libraries and Procedures COE 205 – KFUPM
© Muhamed Mudawar – slide 23
 Runtime Stack Allocation
 .STACK directive specifies a runtime stack
 Operating system allocates memory for the stack
high
 Runtime stack is initially empty ESP = 0012FFC4 address
?
 The stack size can change dynamically at runtime ?
?
?
 Stack pointer ESP ?
?
 ESP is initialized by the operating system ?
?
 Typical initial value of ESP = 0012FFC4h .
.
.
 The stack grows downwards ?
 The memory below ESP is free low
address
 ESP is decremented to allocate stack memory
Libraries and Procedures COE 205 – KFUPM
© Muhamed Mudawar – slide 24
 Stack Instructions
 Two basic stack instructions:
 push source
 pop destination
 Source can be a word (16 bits) or doubleword (32 bits)
 General-purpose register
 Segment register: CS, DS, SS, ES, FS, GS
 Memory operand, memory-to-stack transfer is allowed
 Immediate value
 Destination can be also a word or doubleword
 General-purpose register
 Segment register, except that pop CS is NOT allowed
 Memory, stack-to-memory transfer is allowed
Libraries and Procedures COE 205 – KFUPM
© Muhamed Mudawar – slide 25
 Push Instruction
 Push source32 (r/m32 or imm32)
 ESP is first decremented by 4
 ESP = ESP – 4 (stack grows by 4 bytes)
 32-bit source is then copied onto the stack at the new ESP
 [ESP] = source32
 Push source16 (r/m16)
 ESP is first decremented by 2
 ESP = ESP – 2 (stack grows by 2 bytes)
 16-bit source is then copied on top of stack at the new ESP
 [ESP] = source16
 Operating system puts a limit on the stack capacity
 Push can cause a Stack Overflow (stack cannot grow)
Libraries and Procedures COE 205 – KFUPM
© Muhamed Mudawar – slide 26
 Examples on the Push Instruction
 Suppose we execute:
The stack grows
 PUSH AX ; AX = 125C80FFh
downwards
 PUSH BX ; BX = 2Eh
The area below SP
 PUSH CX ; CX = 9B61Dh
is free

BEFORE AFTER

0012FFC4 ESP 0012FFC4

0012FFC0 0012FFC0 125C80FF

0012FFBC 0012FFBC 0000002E

0012FFB8 0012FFB8 0009B61D ESP

0012FFB4 0012FFB4

Libraries and Procedures COE 205 – KFUPM

© Muhamed Mudawar – slide 27
 Pop Instruction
 Pop dest32 (r/m32)
 32-bit doubleword at ESP is first copied into dest32
 dest32 = [ESP]
 ESP is then incremented by 4
 ESP = ESP + 4 (stack shrinks by 4 bytes)
 Pop dest16 (r/m16)
 16-bit word at ESP is first copied into dest16
 dest16 = [ESP]
 ESP is then incremented by 2
 ESP = ESP + 2 (stack shrinks by 2 bytes)
 Popping from an empty stack causes a stack underflow
Libraries and Procedures COE 205 – KFUPM
© Muhamed Mudawar – slide 28
 Examples on the Pop Instruction
 Suppose we execute: The stack shrinks
 POP SI ; SI = B61Dh upwards
 POP DI ; DI = 0009h The area at & above
ESP is allocated

BEFORE AFTER

0012FFC4 0012FFC4

0012FFC0 125C80FF 0012FFC0 125C80FF

0012FFBC 0000002E 0012FFBC 0000002E ESP

0012FFB8 0009B61D ESP 0012FFB8 0009B61D

0012FFB4 0012FFB4

Libraries and Procedures COE 205 – KFUPM

© Muhamed Mudawar – slide 29
 Uses of the Runtime Stack
 Runtime Stack can be utilized for
 Temporary storage of data and registers
 Transfer of program control in procedures and interrupts
 Parameter passing during a procedure call
 Allocating local variables used inside procedures

 Stack can be used as temporary storage of data

 Example: exchanging two variables in a data segment
push var1 ; var1 is pushed
push var2 ; var2 is pushed
pop var1 ; var1 = var2 on stack
pop var2 ; var2 = var1 on stack

Libraries and Procedures COE 205 – KFUPM

© Muhamed Mudawar – slide 30
 Temporary Storage of Registers
 Stack is often used to free a set of registers
push BX ; save BX
push CX ; save CX
. . .
; EBX and ECX can now be modified
. . .
pop CX ; restore CX first, then
pop BX ; restore BX

 Example on moving DX:AX into BX

push DX ; push most significant word first
push AX ; then push least significant word
pop BX ; BX = DX:AX

Libraries and Procedures COE 205 – KFUPM

© Muhamed Mudawar – slide 31
 Example: Nested Loop
When writing a nested loop, push the outer loop counter
ECX before entering the inner loop, and restore ECX after
exiting the inner loop and before repeating the outer loop

mov cx, 100 ; set outer loop count

L1: . . . ; begin the outer loop
push cx ; save outer loop count

mov cx, 20 ; set inner loop count

L2: . . . ; begin the inner loop
. . . ; inner loop
loop L2 ; repeat the inner loop

. . . ; outer loop
pop cx ; restore outer loop count
loop L1 ; repeat the outer loop

Libraries and Procedures COE 205 – KFUPM

© Muhamed Mudawar – slide 32
 Push/Pop All Registers
 pushad
 Pushes all the 32-bit general-purpose registers
 EAX, ECX, EDX, EBX, ESP, EBP, ESI, and EDI in this order
 Initial ESP value (before pushad) is pushed
 ESP = ESP – 32
 pusha
 Same as pusha but pushes all 16-bit registers AX through DI
 ESP = ESP – 16
 popad
 Pops into registers EDI through EAX in reverse order of pushad
 ESP is not read from stack. It is computed as: ESP = ESP + 32
 popa
 Same as popad but pops into 16-bit registers. ESP = ESP + 16
Libraries and Procedures COE 205 – KFUPM
© Muhamed Mudawar – slide 33
 Stack Instructions on Flags
 Special Stack instructions for pushing and popping flags
 pushfd
 Push the 32-bit EFLAGS

 popfd
 Pop the 32-bit EFLAGS

 No operands are required

 Useful for saving and restoring the flags

 For 16-bit programs use pushf and popf

 Push and Pop the 16-bit FLAG register

Libraries and Procedures COE 205 – KFUPM

© Muhamed Mudawar – slide 34
 Next . . .

 Link Library Overview

 The Book's Link Library
 Runtime Stack and Stack Operations
 Defining and Using Procedures
 Program Design Using Procedures

Libraries and Procedures COE 205 – KFUPM

© Muhamed Mudawar – slide 35
 Procedures
 A procedure is a logically self-contained unit of code
 Called sometimes a function, subprogram, or subroutine
 Receives a list of parameters, also called arguments
 Performs computation and returns results
 Plays an important role in modular program development
 Example of a procedure (called function) in C language
int sumof ( int x,int y,int z ) {
Result type int temp; Formal parameter list
temp = x + y + z;
return temp; Return function result
}
 The above function sumof can be called as follows:
Actual parameter list
sum = sumof( num1,num2,num3 );
Libraries and Procedures COE 205 – KFUPM
© Muhamed Mudawar – slide 36
 Defining a Procedure in Assembly
 Assembler provides two directives to define procedures
 PROC to define name of procedure and mark its beginning
 ENDP to mark end of procedure
 A typical procedure definition is

procedure_name PROC
. . .
; procedure body
. . .
procedure_name ENDP

 procedure_name should match in PROC and ENDP

Libraries and Procedures COE 205 – KFUPM
© Muhamed Mudawar – slide 37
 Documenting Procedures
 Suggested Documentation for Each Procedure:
 Does: Describe the task accomplished by the procedure

 Receives: Describe the input parameters

 Returns: Describe the values returned by the procedure

 Requires: Optional list of requirements called preconditions

 Preconditions
 Must be satisfied before the procedure is called

 If a procedure is called without its preconditions satisfied, it will

probably not produce the expected output

Libraries and Procedures COE 205 – KFUPM

© Muhamed Mudawar – slide 38
 Example of a Procedure Definition
 The sumof procedure receives three integer parameters
 Assumed to be in EAX, EBX, and ECX
 Computes and returns result in register EAX

;------------------------------------------------
; Sumof: Calculates the sum of three integers
; Receives: EAX, EBX, ECX, the three integers
; Returns: EAX = sum, and the flags:CF,OF,ZF,SF
; Requires: nothing
;------------------------------------------------
sumof PROC
add AX, BX ; AX = AX + second number
add AX, CX ; AX = AX + third number
ret ; return to caller
sumof ENDP

 The ret instruction returns control to the caller

Libraries and Procedures COE 205 – KFUPM
© Muhamed Mudawar – slide 39
 The Call Instruction
 To invoke a procedure, the call instruction is used
 The call instruction has the following format
call procedure_name
 Example on calling the procedure sumof
 Caller passes actual parameters in EAX, EBX, and ECX
 Before calling procedure sumof
mov AX, num1 ; pass first parameter in AX
mov BX, num2 ; pass second parameter in BX
mov CX, num3 ; pass third parameter in CX
call sumof ; result is in EAX
mov sum, AX ; save result in variable sum
 call sumof will call the procedure sumof
Libraries and Procedures COE 205 – KFUPM
© Muhamed Mudawar – slide 40
How a Procedure Call / Return Works
 How does a procedure know where to return?
 There can be multiple calls to same procedure in a program
 Procedure has to return differently for different calls
 It knows by saving the return address (RA) on the stack
 This is the address of next instruction after call
 The call instruction does the following
 Pushes the return address on the stack
 Jumps into the first instruction inside procedure
 SP = SP – 4; [SP] = RA; IP = procedure address
 The ret (return) instruction does the following
 Pops return address from stack
 Jumps to return address: IP = [SP]; SP = SP + 4
Libraries and Procedures COE 205 – KFUPM
© Muhamed Mudawar – slide 41
 Details of CALL and Return
Address Machine Code Assembly Language IP-relative call
.CODE EIP = 00401036
main PROC + 0000004B
00401020 A1 00405000 mov EAX, num1 EIP = 00401081
00401025 8B 1D 00405004 mov EBX, num2
Before Call
0040102B 8B 0D 00405008 mov ECX, num3 ESP = 0012FFC4
00401031 E8 0000004B call sumof
After Call
00401036 A3 0040500C mov sum, EAX
ESP = 0012FFC0
. . . . . . . . .
exit After Ret (Return)
ESP = 0012FFC4
main ENDP
sumof PROC

Runtime Stack
ESP
Allocated
00401081 03 C3 add EAX, EBX
00401083 03 C1 add EAX, ECX ESP RA=00401036
00401085 C3 ret Free Area
sumof ENDP
END main
Libraries and Procedures COE 205 – KFUPM
© Muhamed Mudawar – slide 42
 Don’t Mess Up the Stack !
 Just before returning from a procedure
 Make sure the stack pointer ESP is pointing at return address
 Example of a messed-up procedure
 Pushes EAX on the stack before returning
 Stack pointer ESP is NOT pointing at return address!
main PROC Stack
call messedup
. . . high addr
exit Used
ESP
main ENDP ESP Return Addr
messedup PROC ESP EAX Value Where to return?
push EAX Free Area
EAX value is NOT
ret the return address!
messedup ENDP
Libraries and Procedures COE 205 – KFUPM
© Muhamed Mudawar – slide 43
 Nested Procedure Calls
main PROC
.
.
call Sub1 By the time Sub3 is called, the stack
exit contains all three return addresses
main ENDP

Sub1 PROC
. return address of call Sub1
.
call Sub2
ret return address of call Sub2
Sub1 ENDP
return address of call Sub3 ESP
Sub2 PROC
.
.
call Sub3
ret
Sub2 ENDP

Sub3 PROC
.
.
ret
Sub3 ENDP

Libraries and Procedures COE 205 – KFUPM

© Muhamed Mudawar – slide 44
 Parameter Passing
 Parameter passing in assembly language is different
 More complicated than that used in a high-level language
 In assembly language
 Place all required parameters in an accessible storage area
 Then call the procedure
 Two types of storage areas used
 Registers: general-purpose registers are used (register method)
 Memory: stack is used (stack method) is not covered here
 Two common mechanisms of parameter passing
 Pass-by-value: parameter value is passed
 Pass-by-reference: address of parameter is passed
Libraries and Procedures COE 205 – KFUPM
© Muhamed Mudawar – slide 45
 Passing Parameters in Registers
;-----------------------------------------------------
; ArraySum: Computes the sum of an array of integers
; Receives: ESI = pointer to an array of doublewords
; ECX = number of array elements
; Returns: EAX = sum
;-----------------------------------------------------
ArraySum PROC
mov eax,0 ; set the sum to zero
L1: add eax, [esi] ; add each integer to sum
add esi, 4 ; point to next integer
loop L1 ; repeat for array size
ret
ArraySum ENDP

ESI: Reference parameter = array address

ECX: Value parameter = count of array elements
Libraries and Procedures COE 205 – KFUPM
© Muhamed Mudawar – slide 46
 Preserving Registers
 Need to preserve the registers across a procedure call
 Stack can be used to preserve register values
 Which registers should be saved?
 Those registers that are modified by the called procedure
 But still used by the calling procedure
 We can save all registers using pusha if we need most of them
 However, better to save only needed registers when they are few

 Who should preserve the registers?

 Calling procedure: saves and frees registers that it uses
 Registers are saved before procedure call and restored after return
 Called procedure: preferred method for modular code
 Register preservation is done in one place only (inside procedure)
Libraries and Procedures COE 205 – KFUPM
© Muhamed Mudawar – slide 47
 Example on Preserving Registers
;-----------------------------------------------------
; ArraySum: Computes the sum of an array of integers
; Receives: ESI = pointer to an array of doublewords
; ECX = number of array elements
; Returns: EAX = sum
;-----------------------------------------------------
ArraySum PROC
push esi ; save esi, it is modified
push ecx ; save ecx, it is modified
mov eax,0 ; set the sum to zero
L1: add eax, [esi] ; add each integer to sum
add esi, 4 ; point to next integer
loop L1 ; repeat for array size
pop ecx ; restore registers
pop esi ; in reverse order
ret
ArraySum ENDP No need to save EAX. Why?

Libraries and Procedures COE 205 – KFUPM

© Muhamed Mudawar – slide 48
 USES Operator
 The USES operator simplifies the writing of a procedure
 Registers are frequently modified by procedures
 Just list the registers that should be preserved after USES
 Assembler will generate the push and pop instructions

ArraySum PROC
ArraySum PROC USES esi ecx push esi
mov eax,0 push ecx
L1: add eax, [esi] mov eax,0
add esi, 4 L1: add eax, [esi]
loop L1 add esi, 4
ret loop L1
ArraySum ENDP pop ecx
pop esi
ret
ArraySum ENDP
Libraries and Procedures COE 205 – KFUPM
© Muhamed Mudawar – slide 49
 Next . . .

 Link Library Overview

 The Book's Link Library
 Runtime Stack and Stack Operations
 Defining and Using Procedures
 Program Design Using Procedures

Libraries and Procedures COE 205 – KFUPM

© Muhamed Mudawar – slide 50
 Program Design using Procedures
 Program Design involves the Following:
 Break large tasks into smaller ones
 Use a hierarchical structure based on procedure calls
 Test individual procedures separately

Integer Summation Program:

Write a program that prompts the user for multiple 32-bit integers,
stores them in an array, calculates the array sum, and displays the
sum on the screen.

1. Prompt user for multiple integers

Main steps: 2. Calculate the sum of the array
3. Display the sum
Libraries and Procedures COE 205 – KFUPM
© Muhamed Mudawar – slide 51
 Structure Chart
Summation
Program (main)

Clrscr PromptForIntegers ArraySum DisplaySum

WriteString ReadInt WriteString WriteInt

WriteInt

Structure Chart
Above diagram is called a structure chart
Describes program structure, division into procedure, and call sequence
Link library procedures are shown in grey
Libraries and Procedures COE 205 – KFUPM
© Muhamed Mudawar – slide 52
 Integer Summation Program – 1 of 4
INCLUDE Irvine32.inc
ArraySize EQU 5
.DATA
prompt1 BYTE "Enter a signed integer: ",0
prompt2 BYTE "The sum of the integers is: ",0
array DWORD ArraySize DUP(?)
.CODE
main PROC
call Clrscr ; clear the screen
mov esi, OFFSET array
mov ecx, ArraySize
call PromptForIntegers ; store input integers in array
call ArraySum ; calculate the sum of array
call DisplaySum ; display the sum
exit
main ENDP
Libraries and Procedures COE 205 – KFUPM
© Muhamed Mudawar – slide 53
 Integer Summation Program – 2 of 4
;-----------------------------------------------------
; PromptForIntegers: Read input integers from the user
; Receives: ESI = pointer to the array
; ECX = array size
; Returns: Fills the array with the user input
;-----------------------------------------------------
PromptForIntegers PROC USES ecx edx esi
mov edx, OFFSET prompt1
L1:
call WriteString ; display prompt1
call ReadInt ; read integer into EAX
call Crlf ; go to next output line
mov [esi], eax ; store integer in array
add esi, 4 ; advance array pointer
loop L1
ret
PromptForIntegers ENDP
Libraries and Procedures COE 205 – KFUPM
© Muhamed Mudawar – slide 54
 Integer Summation Program – 3 of 4
;-----------------------------------------------------
; ArraySum: Calculates the sum of an array of integers
; Receives: ESI = pointer to the array,
; ECX = array size
; Returns: EAX = sum of the array elements
;-----------------------------------------------------
ArraySum PROC USES esi ecx
mov eax,0 ; set the sum to zero
L1:
add eax, [esi] ; add each integer to sum
add esi, 4 ; point to next integer
loop L1 ; repeat for array size

ret ; sum is in EAX

ArraySum ENDP
Libraries and Procedures COE 205 – KFUPM
© Muhamed Mudawar – slide 55
 Integer Summation Program – 4 of 4
;-----------------------------------------------------
; DisplaySum: Displays the sum on the screen
; Receives: EAX = the sum
; Returns: nothing
;-----------------------------------------------------
DisplaySum PROC
mov edx, OFFSET prompt2
call WriteString ; display prompt2
call WriteInt ; display sum in EAX
call Crlf
ret
DisplaySum ENDP
END main

Libraries and Procedures COE 205 – KFUPM

© Muhamed Mudawar – slide 56
 Sample Output

Enter a signed integer: 550

Enter a signed integer: -23
Enter a signed integer: -96
Enter a signed integer: 20
Enter a signed integer: 7
The sum of the integers is: +458

Libraries and Procedures COE 205 – KFUPM

© Muhamed Mudawar – slide 57
 Summary
 Procedure – Named block of executable code
 CALL: call a procedure, push return address on top of stack
 RET: pop the return address and return from procedure
 Preserve registers across procedure calls
 Runtime stack – LIFO structure – Grows downwards
 Holds return addresses, saved registers, etc.
 PUSH – insert value on top of stack, decrement ESP
 POP – remove top value of stack, increment ESP
 Use the Irvine32.lib library for standard I/O
 Include Irvine32.inc to make procedure prototypes visible
 You can learn more by studying Irvine32.asm code

Libraries and Procedures COE 205 – KFUPM

© Muhamed Mudawar – slide 58