Electronics Device and Circuits

(EDC)
Arjun Singh Vijoriya
Assistant Professor & ICT Manager
 CHAPTER-2
Bipolar Junction Transistor
 BJT
• A bipolar junction transistor is a three-terminal semiconductor
device that consists of two p-n junctions which are able to amplify
or magnify a signal.
• It is a current controlled device.
• Current flow in the BJT due to both electrons and holes that’s why
it is called bipolar transistor.
• The three terminals of the BJT are the base, the collector, and the
emitter.
• BJT is used as a switch, as an amplifier, as a filter, as an oscillator,
as a demodulator, in clipping circuits, in Logic circuits.
 Types of BJT:
There are two types of bipolar junction transistors:
• PNP bipolar junction transistor
• NPN bipolar junction transistor
 Construction
:
• A transistor has three doped regions Emitter,
Base and Collector.
• Base region is much thinner as compared to
the collector and emitter regions.
• Emitter is heavily doped.
• The base is lightly doped.
• The doping level of the collector is
intermediate, between the heavy doping of the
emitter and the light doping of the base.
• The collector is physically the largest of the
three regions.
 The Biased Transistor
• The heavily doped emitter emits or injects its
:free electrons into the base.
• The lightly doped base pass emitter-injected
electrons on to the collector.
• The collector collects or gathers most of the
electrons from the base.

• VBB forward-biases the emitter diode, forcing

the free electrons in the emitter to enter the
base. The thin and lightly doped base gives
almost all these electrons enough time to
diffuse into the collector. These electrons flow
through the collector, through RC, and into the

positive terminal of the V CC voltage source.

 Transistor Currents
• There are three different currents in a
:transistor: emitter current I , base current
E

IB, and collector current IC.

• As per Kirchhoff’s current law for a

transistor.

IE = IC + IB
Since the base current is so small, the
collector current approximately equals the
emitter current:

IC ≃ IE
and the base current is much smaller than
Transistor Currents
Alpha is the ratio of the

: change in collector current

to the change in emitter
current. It is also known as
the current gain in the
common base
configuration.

Beta is the current gain

in Common Emitter
configuration
Relation B/w Alpha and Beta

:
 Transistor Currents

:
 Transistor Circuit Configurations/Connections
• :There are three types of transistor circuit configurations :
– CE (common emitter)
– CC (common collector)
– CB (common base)
 CE (common emitter) Configurations/Connections
• :The common or ground side of each voltage source is
connected to the emitter. Because of this, the circuit is called
a common emitter (CE) connection.
• The circuit has two loops. The left loop is the base loop, and
the right loop is the collector loop.
• VBB source forward-biases the emitter diode with R B as a
current-limiting resistance.
• By changing VBB or RB, we can change the base current. VBB Base Source Voltages w.r.t
Changing the base current will change the collector current. ground.
VCC  Collector Source Voltages
In other words, the small base current controls the large
w.r.t ground.
collector current.
VCE  voltage between points B
• In the collector loop, a source voltage V CC reverse-biases the &E
collector diode through RC. VBC  voltage between points B
&C
• The collector must be positive to collect most of the free electrons VBE  voltage between points B
&E
injected into the base.
VCE = VC – VE Here VE =
 Transistor Characteristics:
:
• There two characteristics for transistor:
– Input Characteristic : This is graph between input current IB and input voltage VBE for different constant VCE
Voltages.

– Output Characteristic: This is the graph between output current (IC) and output voltage (VCE) for different

Input Constant Current IB.

 Input Characteristic :
• The input characteristics describe the relationship
between input current or base current (I B) and input

voltage or base-emitter voltage (VBE).

• When output voltage (VCE) is at zero volts and emitter-

base junction is forward biased by input voltage (V BE),

the emitter-base junction acts like a normal p-n
junction diode.
 Output Characteristic :
The output characteristics describe the relationship
between output current (IC) and output voltage

(VCE).

When the base current or input current I B = 0 μA,

the transistor operates in the cut-off region. In this
region, both junctions are reverse biased.
 Regions of Operation
• Active Region: The first region in the middle where VCE is between 1
and 40 V. This represents the normal operation of a transistor. In this
region, the emitter diode is forward biased, and the collector diode is
reverse biased. Furthermore, the collector is gathering almost all the
electrons that the emitter has sent into the base. This region is called
the active region.

• Breakdown region: The transistor should never operate in this region

because it will be destroyed.

• Saturation region: There is the early rising part of the curve, where V CE
is between 0 V and a few tenths of a volt. This sloping part of the curve
is called the saturation region. In this region, the collector diode has
insufficient positive voltage to collect all the free electrons injected into
the base.

• Cutoff Region: The base current is zero, but there still is a small collector
current. On a curve tracer, this current is usually so small that you
cannot see it. We have exaggerated the bottom curve by drawing it
larger than usual. This bottom curve is called the cutoff region of the
transistor.
 Regions of Operation
• Transistors operate in the active region when they are
used to amplify weak signals.
• Sometimes, the active region is called the linear region
because changes in the input signal produce
proportional changes in the output signal.
• The saturation and cutoff regions are useful in digital
and computer circuits, referred to as switching circuits.
• Transistor has a power dissipation of approximately:

PD = VCE * IC
 Transistor Approximations – Ideal
• We visualize the emitter diode as an ideal diode.
In this case, VBE = 0. This allows us to calculate
base current quickly and easily.
• The collector side of the transistor acts like a
current source that pumps a collector current of
βdcIB through the collector resistor.

• Therefore, after you calculate the base current,

you can multiply by the current gain to get the
collector current.
 Transistor Approximations- Second

• We use the second approximation of

a diode when calculating base
current. For silicon transistors, this
means that VBE = 0.7 V. (For

germanium transistors, VBE = 0.3 V.)

With the second approximation, the
base and collector currents will be
slightly less than their ideal values.
 Reading Transistor Data Sheets
• Small-signal transistors can dissipate less than a
• Maximum Current and Power:
watt; power transistors can dissipate more than a
• IC is the maximum dc collector current rating
watt.
• PD, is the maximum power rating of the device.
• When you look at a data sheet for either type of
transistor, you should start with the maximum • Derating Factors:
ratings because these are the limits on the • The derating factor tells you how much you have
to reduce the power rating of a device.
transistor currents, voltages, and other quantities.
Heat Sinks:
We increase the surface area of the transistor case,
• Breakdown Ratings: (Reverse Breakdown we allow the heat to escape more easily into the
surrounding air.
Voltages)
• VCEO is the voltage between the collector and the
Thermal Resistances:
emitter with the base open.

• VCBO, which stands for the voltage from collector to Current Gain:
base with the emitter open.

• VEBO is the maximum reverse voltage from emitter to

Reading Transistor Data Sheets
Variations in Current Gain βdc
The current gain βdc of a transistor depends on three
factors:
• Transistor
• Collector Current
• Temperature.
For instance, when you replace a transistor with another of the
same type, the current gain usually changes. Likewise, if the
collector current or temperature changes, the current gain will
change.

Effect of Current and Temperature:

• When the temperature decreases, the current gain
is less .
• When the temperature increases, h FE or βdc
The Load Line
The load line is a visual summary of all
possible transistor
operating points for the circuit.

The collector-emitter voltage is. given by:

If we graph this equation (IC versus VCE), we

will get a straight line. This line is called the
load line because it represents the effect of
the load on IC and VCE.

When the base resistance varies from zero to

infinity, it causes IB to vary, which makes IC and
VCE vary over their entire ranges. If you plot the
The Load Line
The Saturation Point:
When the base resistance is too small, there is too
much collector current, and the collector-emitter
voltage drops to approximately zero. In this case, the
transistor goes into saturation. This means that the
collector current has increased to its maximum
possible value.
IC(sat) = VCC / RC

When a transistor is saturated, further increases in

base current produce no further increases in
collector current.

The Cutoff Point:

A transistor is cut off when its collector current is

zero.

The cutoff point is the point at which the load line

intersects the cutoff region of the collector curves.

The cutoff point tells you the maximum possible

The Load Line
Plotting the Q Point
Recognizing Saturation
• There are two basic kinds of transistor circuits: amplifying and
switching.

• With amplifying circuits, the Q point must remain in the active

region under all operating Conditions. If it does not, the output
signal will be distorted on the peak where saturation or cutoff
occurs.

• With switching circuits, the Q point usually switches between

saturation and cutoff.

Question : How to identify in which region transistor is operating ?

Active region or Saturation region.

 We do not operate transistor in breakdown region.

 In Cutoff region transistor won’t operate.
Recognizing Saturation
To determine whether a transistor is operating in the active region or
the saturation region.

Here are the steps:

1. Assume that the transistor is operating in the active region.
2. Carry out the calculations for currents and voltages.
3. If an impossible result occurs in any calculation, the assumption is
false.

An impossible answer means that the transistor is saturated.

Otherwise, the transistor
is operating in the active region.
The Transistor Switch
• Base bias is useful in digital circuits because
these circuits are usually designed to operate
at saturation and cutoff.

• They have either low output voltage or high

output voltage.

• Variations in the Q point don’t matter

because the transistor remains in saturation
or cutoff when the current gain changes.

• The circuit can have only two output

voltages: 0 or 10 V. This is how you can
recognize a digital circuit.
Emitter Bias
• The resistor has been moved from the
base circuit to the emitter circuit.
• Base supply voltage is now applied
directly to the base.
• The emitter is no longer grounded. Now
the emitter is above the ground and has
voltage given by:
VE = VBB – VBE

• The Q point of an emitter-biased circuit

is immune to changes in current gain.
Emitter Bias
Emitter Bias
Emitter Bias
LED Drivers
• Base-biased circuits are normally designed to switch between
saturation and cutoff,
• Emitter-biased circuits are usually designed to operate in the
active region.

Base-Biased LED Emitter-Biased LED

Driver Driver
it is designed for hard saturation, The LED current is independent of
where the current gain doesn’t matter. the LED voltage. Another advantage
is that the circuit doesn’t require a
If you want to change the LED current collector resistor.
in this circuit you can change either
the collector resistance or the collector To change the LED current, you can
supply voltage. change the base supply voltage or
Voltage Divider Bias
• The base circuit contains a voltage
divider (R1 and R2). Because of this,
the circuit is called voltage-divider
bias (VDB).
Voltage Divider Bias
Voltage Divider Bias
Voltage Divider Bias
Accurate VDB Analysis
What is a well-designed VDB circuit?
It is one in which the voltage divider appears stiff to the
input resistance of the base.
Accurate VDB Analysis

Beta= IC /IB
Accurate VDB Analysis
Accurate VDB Analysis
VDB Load Line and Q Point
VDB Load Line and Q Point
Two-Supply Emitter Bias (TSEB).
• This type of biasing have two supply as shown in the
figure.

• If this type of circuit is correctly designed, the base

current will be small enough to ignore. This is
equivalent to saying that the base voltage is
approximately 0 V.

• The emitter resistor plays the key role in setting up

the emitter current. To find this current, apply Ohm’s
law to the emitter resistor as follows:
Two-Supply Emitter Bias (TSEB).
Emitter-Feedback Bias

Q1. The load line in a transistor circuit represents:

a) The locus of all possible Q-points

b) The operating point
c) The maximum power point
d) The saturation region

Answer: a) The locus of all possible Q-points

Q2. The operating point of a transistor is also known as:

a) Q-point
b) Saturation point
c) Cut-off point
d) Breakdown point

Answer: a) Q-point
Quiz

Q3. Which of the following statements about the active region of a transistor
is true?

a) Both junctions are reverse-biased

b) Both junctions are forward-biased
c) The emitter-base junction is forward-biased, and the collector-base
junction is reverse-biased
d) The emitter-base junction is reverse-biased, and the collector-base
junction is forward-biased

Answer: c) The emitter-base junction is forward-biased, and the

collector-base junction is reverse-biased
Quiz
Q. In a common-emitter amplifier, the DC load line represents the
relationship between:

a) Output voltage and input voltage

b) Output current and input voltage
c) Output voltage and output current
d) Input current and output current

Answer: c) Output voltage and output current

Q. The region of operation where a transistor acts as an amplifier is:

a) Cut-off
b) Saturation
c) Active
d) Reverse-biased

Answer: c) Active
Quiz
Q. What is the primary purpose of a transistor as a switch?

a) To amplify signals
b) To regulate voltage
c) To control current flow
d) To produce oscillations

Answer: c) To control current flow

Q. Which of the following factors can cause a shift in the operating point of a
transistor?
a) Temperature changes
b) Collector resistance variations
c) Changes in power supply voltage
d) All of the above

Answer: d) All of the above

Quiz
Q. In which region does a transistor operate as an ON switch?
a) Active
b) Cut-off
c) Saturation
d) Reverse-biased

Answer: c) Saturation

Q. The load line intersects the characteristic curve at the:

a) Q-point
b) Breakdown point
c) Saturation point
d) Cut-off point

Answer: a) Q-point
Quiz
Q. In a common-emitter configuration, the collector current is primarily
determined by:

a) The base-emitter voltage

b) The collector-emitter voltage
c) The base current
d) The load resistor

Answer: c) The base current

Q. Which region of transistor operation is characterized by both junctions

being forward-biased?

a) Active
b) Cut-off
c) Saturation
d) Inverse

Answer: c) Saturation
Quiz
Q. The base-emitter junction of a transistor is typically:

a) Reverse-biased
b) Forward-biased
c) Open-circuited
d) Short-circuited

Answer: b) Forward-biased

Q. Which operating region of a transistor is characterized by both junctions

being reverse-biased?

a) Saturation
b) Cut-off
c) Active
d) Inverse

Answer: b) Cut-off
Quiz
Q. The term "hFE" is commonly associated with:

a) Transistor power rating

b) Transistor frequency response
c) Transistor current gain
d) Transistor voltage gain

Answer: c) Transistor current gain

Q. Which operating region of a transistor is characterized by both junctions

being reverse-biased?

a) Saturation
b) Cut-off
c) Active
d) Inverse

Answer: b) Cut-off
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