Fibonacci

Sequence
 Fibonacci

•Leonardo da Pisa, aka Fibonacci

Fibonacci Nov 23(1 1 2 3)
 Formula
Let Fn = number
F0 = 0
F1 = 1
F2 = 1
Fn = Fn-1 + Fn-2
These are the Fibonacci numbers:
0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, …
They grow very fast: F30 > 106 !
In fact, Fn  20.694n, exponential growth
rate.
 Computing Fibonacci
numbers
function F(n)
F(5)
if n = 0 return 0
if n = 1 return 1
if n = 2 return 1 F(4) F(3)
return F(n-1) + F(n-2)

F(3) F(2) F(2) F(1)

F(2) F(1)

A recursive algorithm
 Two questions we
always ask
Does it work correctly? (Proofs)

Yes – it directly implements the

definition of Fibonacci numbers.

How long does it take? (Time

analysis)
This is not so obvious…
 Running time analysis
function F(n)
if n = 1 return 1
if n = 2 return 1
return F(n-1) + F(n-2)

Let T(n) = number of steps needed to compute F(n).

Then:
T(n) > T(n-1) + T(n-2)
But recall that Fn = Fn-1 + Fn-2. Therefore T(n) > Fn  20.694n
!
Exponential time.
 How bad is exponential
time?
Need 20.694n operations to compute
Fn.

Eg. Computing F200 needs about 2140

operations.

How long does this take on a fast

computer?
 NEC Earth Simulator

•Can perform up to 40 trillion operations per second.

 Is exponential time
all that bad?
The Earth simulator needs 295 seconds for
F200.

Time in seconds Interpretation

210 17 minutes
220 12 days
230 32 years
240 cave paintings
 Huffman Coding:
An Application of Binary
Trees and Priority Queues
 Encoding and
Compression of Data
 Fax Machines
 ASCII
 Variations on ASCII
– min number of bits needed
– cost of savings
– patterns
– modifications
 Purpose of Huffman
Coding
 Proposed by Dr. David A.
Huffman in 1952
– “A Method for the Construction
of Minimum Redundancy Codes”
 Applicable to many forms of
data transmission
– Our example: text files
 The Basic Algorithm

 Huffman coding is a form of

statistical coding
 Not all characters occur with the
same frequency!
 Yet all characters are allocated
the same amount of space
– 1 char = 1 byte, be it e or x
 The Basic Algorithm

 Any savings in tailoring codes

to frequency of character?
 Code word lengths are no longer
fixed like ASCII.
 Code word lengths vary and will
be shorter for the more
frequently used characters.
 The (Real) Basic
Algorithm
1. Scan text to be compressed and tally
occurrence of all characters.
2. Sort or prioritize characters based on
number of occurrences in text.
3. Build Huffman code tree based on
prioritized list.
4. Perform a traversal of tree to determine
all code words.
5. Scan text again and create new file
using the Huffman codes.
 Building a Tree
Scan the original text

 Consider the following short

text:

 Eerie eyes seen near lake.

 Count up the occurrences of all

characters in the text
 Building a Tree
Scan the original text

Eerie eyes seen near lake.

 What characters are present?

E e r i space
y s n a r l k .
 Building a Tree
Scan the original text
Eerie eyes seen near lake.
 What is the frequency of each character in the text?

Char Freq. Char Freq. Char Freq.

E 1 y 1 k 1
e 8 s 2 . 1
r 2 n 2
i 1 a 2
space 4 l 1
 Building a Tree
Prioritize characters

 Create binary tree nodes with

character and frequency of
each character
 Place nodes in a priority
queue
– The lower the occurrence, the
higher the priority in the queue
 Building a Tree
Prioritize characters
 Uses binary tree nodes
public class HuffNode
{
public char myChar;
public int myFrequency;
public HuffNode myLeft, myRight;
}
priorityQueue myQueue;
 Building a Tree
 The queue after inserting all nodes

E i y l k . r s n a sp e
1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 4 8

 Null Pointers are not shown

 Building a Tree
 While priority queue contains two or
more nodes
– Create new node
– Dequeue node and make it left subtree
– Dequeue next node and make it right
subtree
– Frequency of new node equals sum of
frequency of left and right children
– Enqueue new node back into queue
 Building a Tree

E i y l k . r s n a sp e
1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 4 8
 Building a Tree

y l k . r s n a sp e
1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 4 8

E i
 Building a Tree

y l k . r s n a sp e
1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 4 8
E i
 Building a Tree

k . r s n a sp e
1 1 2 2 2 2 4 8
E i

y l
 Building a Tree

2
k . r s n a 2 sp e
1 1 2 2 2 2 4 8
y l
E i
 Building a Tree

r s n a 2 2 sp e
2 2 2 2 4 8
y l
E i

k .
 Building a Tree

r s n a 2 2 sp e
2
2 2 2 2 4 8
E i y l k .
 Building a Tree

n a 2 sp e
2 2
2 2 4 8
E i y l k .

r s
 Building a Tree

n a 2 sp e
2 4
2
2 2 4 8

E i y l k . r s
 Building a Tree

2 4 e
2 2 sp
8
4
y l k . r s
E i

n a
 Building a Tree

2 4 4 e
2 2 sp
8
4
y l k . r s n a
E i
 Building a Tree

4 4 e
2 sp
8
4
k . r s n a

2 2

E i y l
 Building a Tree

4 4 4
2 sp e
4 2 2 8
k . r s n a

E i y l
 Building a Tree

4 4 4
e
2 2 8
r s n a

E i y l

2 sp

k .
 Building a Tree

4 4 4 6 e
2 sp 8
r s n a 2 2
k .
E i y l

What is happening to the characters

with a low number of occurrences?
 Building a Tree

4 6 e
2 2 2 8
sp

E i y l k .
8

4 4

r s n a
 Building a Tree

4 6 e 8
2 2 2 8
sp
4 4
E i y l k .
r s n a
 Building a Tree

8
e
8
4 4
10
r s n a
4
6
2 2
2 sp
E i y l k .
 Building a Tree

8 10
e
8 4
4 4
6
2 2 2
r s n a sp
E i y l k .
 Building a Tree

10
16
4
6
2 2 e 8
2 sp
E i y l k . 4 4

r s n a
 Building a Tree

10 16

4
6
e 8
2 2
2 sp
4 4
E i y l k .

r s n a
 Building a Tree

26

16
10

4 e 8
6
2 2 2 sp 4 4

E i y l k .
r s n a
 Building a Tree
•After
enqueueing
26 this node
there is only
16
10 one node left
4 e 8
in priority
6
queue.
2 2
2 sp 4 4

E i y l k .
r s n a
 Building a Tree
Dequeue the single node
left in the queue.
26

16
This tree contains the 10
new code words for each 4 e 8
character. 6
2 2 2 sp 4 4
Frequency of root node E i y l k .
r s n a
should equal number of
characters in text.
Eerie eyes seen near lake.  26 characters
 Encoding the File
Traverse Tree for Codes

 Perform a traversal
of the tree to
obtain new code 26
words 16
10
 Going left is a 0
going right is a 1 4
6
e 8
 code word is only 2 2 2 sp 4 4
completed when a
E i y l k .
leaf node is r s n a
reached
 Encoding the File
Traverse Tree for Codes
Char Code
E 0000
i 0001
y 0010 26
l 0011 16
k 0100 10
. 0101 4 e 8
space 011 6
e 10 2 2 2 sp 4 4
r 1100
E i y l k .
s 1101 r s n a
n 1110
a 1111
 Encoding the File
 Rescan text and
encode file using Char Code
new code words
E 0000
i 0001
Eerie eyes seen near lake. y 0010
0000101100000110011 l 0011
k 0100
1000101011011010011 . 0101
1110101111110001100 space 011
1111110100100101 e 10
r 1100
s 1101
n 1110
a 1111
 Encoding the File
Results
 Have we made
things any 0000101100000110011
better? 1000101011011010011
1110101111110001100
 73 bits to encode
1111110100100101
the text
 ASCII would take
8 * 26 = 208 bits
If modified code used 4 bits per
character are needed. Total bits
4 * 26 = 104. Savings not as great.