Design and

Installation of Stand
Alone Power Systems
INTRODUCTION
 OBJECTIVE
By the end of this training student will be
exposed to why the need for Solar
Power considering
 Climate and Ecological Change ; highlights the
potential consequences of these changes on the population of
Ghana.
 Fuel Poverty; emphasizing the challenges faced by rural
communities in accessing reliable energy sources
 Electrification and Rural Development ;the potential
advantages of electrification, particularly through the
adoption of solar power, for rural communities in Ghana
1
 climatic and Ecological change

Climate change refers to

long-term shifts in our
climate,i.e temperatures and
Elimia Castle washed away due to
rise in temperature weather patterns.

Ecological change refers to

any disturbance in the
environment caused by human
ecological concept change tree forest
drought and forest
action.
2
 NOTE

• These shifts may be natural, such as through

variations in the solar cycle
• human activities is the main cause of climate
change,
• Northern Ghana is experiencing desertification,
which turns fertile land into desert
• Ecological and climatic are related
 The Current and Potential Impacts of Climate and Ecological Change
Higher temperature
Since the 1980s, each decade has been warmer than the
previous one
• Higher temperatures increase heat-related illnesses and make
working outdoors more difficult
• Wildfires start more easily

.Harmful storms and floods have become more frequent in

More severe storms
and fload
many regions of Ghana
• As temperatures rise, more moisture evaporates, which
increases extreme rainfall and flooding, causing more harmful
storms
• storms often destroy homes and communities, causing deaths
and huge economic losse Picture Labadi Beach, Accra)

Increased drought It reduces water availability and cause scarcity in

northern Ghana
• It leads to an increased risk of agricultural droughts
affecting crops, animals and human life[ picture2018
water was rationed in Ghana regions and continents]

3
 continuation
Warming ,Rising Ocean
As the ocean warms, it expands, causing the sea
level to rise, melting ice sheets also causing sea
levels to rise, threatening coastal and island
communities.
• oceans absorb carbon dioxide which makes them
more acidic. And hence harmful for living organism

Loss of plants The world is losing species at a rate 1,000 times

and Animal greater than at any other time in recorded human
history
• Forest fires, extreme weather, invasive pests
and diseases are among the causes

How do climatic change increases the factors

that put and keep people in poverty?
Poverty and
Displacement
4
Activity that contribute climatic and ecological change

Generatin
g power
Consumin
g Product manufactur
and ing Goods
Service s
Activity that
contribute
climatic and
ecological
change Cutting
Producin Down
g food Forests
Using
Transport
ation
NOTE

 Most electricity is still generated by burning coal, oil, or

gas, which produces carbon dioxide and nitrous oxide
 The manufacturing industry is one of the largest
contributors to greenhouse gas emissions WHY ?
 Ghana lost 80% of its forest from 1900 to 2000, and it
continues to lose forest at about 2% per year.
 How we move around, what we eat and how much we
throw away all contribute to climatic change
 Climate and Ecological Change in Ghana

 These temperature increases have been even more

significant in the northern regions of Ghana,
 illegal and unsustainable logging and mining have
caused significant deforestation in Ghana.
 Between 1990 and 2005, Ghana lost over a quarter of
its total national forest cover.
 Forest resources play a large role in income
generation and household food security in
Ghana. WHY?
Graph below shows how Ghana's Average temperature has
increased since 1981 due to climate change.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2468227619307070
Put simply, net-zero means cutting greenhouse gas emissions to as close to zero as possible, with any remaining emissions
Why is Net Zero
Important How Can Net
Zero be
Achieved
It calls for nothing
less than a complete
transformation of
how we produce,
To keep global warming consume, and move
to no more than 1.5°C – about.
as called for in the Paris
Agreement – emissions
need to be reduced by
45% by 2030 and reach Replacing
net zero by 2050. polluting coal,
gas and oil-fired
power with
global temperature energy from
increase needs to be renewable
limited to 1.5°C above
pre-industrial levels.
sources
 Fuel Poverty.
 What type of
fuel do you Wood fuel Liquefied
use in your including Petroleum
choarcoal Gas (LPG)
home ?
 Comparatively
what is the
financial and Electricity
health cost Kerosine (cooking,
(lighting) lighting,
effective of this appliances
fuel
 What are the Financial and Health cost Associated with Fuels?
1 Firewood cooking Cheap Harmful to health
charcoal

3 Kerosine lighting Very expensive Harmful to health

when burnt inside

3 LPG Cooking Expensive Little health risk if

used correctly

4 Electricity Cooking Very expensive Little health risk if

lighting for cooking used correctly
and Cheap for
appliances lighting
 Health costs associated with fuels

• Smoke and ashes from wood fuels cause respiratory

and lung disease

• Smoke from wood fuels can cause suffocation

• Leakage Pipes of LPG can cause a fire or explosion

• Faulty electric cookers can cause electrical fires and

shocks which can lead to the death of victims

What is fuel Poverty?
fuel is sometimes scarce to the extent that people in the community spend a
Electricity is also unreliable, and could damage their equipment.
choose between either fuel for cooking and fuel for lighting because they ca
OR because the fuel they are using is causing significant damage to their h
Do you think mixing renewable with traditional energy can help reduc
 WORKED EXAMPLE

Mr Amuzu and his wife are monthly salary workers and they have 3
children.
Mr Amuzu together with his wife earn GH¢ 2,500 a month and they
use more than GH¢ 251 and above on LPG or charcoal for cooking
and electricity for ironing, lighting and rice cooking,
Do they have access to reliable electricity, clean and safe fuel
 p
o
Electrification and Rural Development
w
e
r

o
HOWu does it
feeling
t When
power
aOFFgoes
?
g
e do low
How
cost Can we link
electrification an Access to
e Electricity with
affect
v the
community Development
e
r

a
f
 Electrification and Rural Development

Electrification is the provision of electricity to areas of

Ghana which did not previously have access.
Rural Development is the positive change to a rural
community, which improves the lives and economic
wellbeing of the inhabitants of the community

Provision of electricity solar power systems on

for rural Areas a Pay As You Go Basis
Benefits Derived by Communities Connected to Low-Cost
Electricity

Benefit
derived by
communitie
s with low
cost
electricity
 QUESTION
Do you think that Ghana has any
responsibility to reduce its carbon
emissions?
What is more of a concern to you _climate
change or fuel poverty?
Do you agree that electrification is key to
development?
SOLAR RESOURCES
ASSESSMENT
Apparent position of the Sun
 Sun’s altitude
Is the angle between the sun and
the local horizon directly beneath
the sun

Sun’s azimuth angles

Is the compass direction from
which the sunlight is coming

The azimuth and altitude angles of the sun depend on:

• Latitude of the site.
• Day of the year (Day number, declination angle, )
• Time of the day (Hour angle, )
Altitude angle ( BN) of the sun at solar noon

Tilt angle (0N ) of the solar collector

• Tilt angle that would make sun’s ray perpendicular to the module at noon
is given as:
 Geometric Effects

e.g. 9 rays per square

metre

1 square
metre
Angle of
Incidence
= Altitude 
angle
Geometric Effects Cont

we now have 12 rays per square metre

1 square metre
Surface perpendicular
to the sun’s rays
Altitude angle 
 Geometric Effects Cont
If the sun's angle of incidence changes then so does the
energy density.

Again we have
12 rays per square metre

1 square metre
 Irradiance
Solar irradiance is the power per unit area received from the Sun
in the form of electromagnetic radiation in the wavelength range
of the measuring instrument.

Also, the amount of solar power available per unit area is known
as the irradiance.

• Symbol = I

• Units = kW/m2 or watts/m2 or mW/cm2

• Peak value = 1kW/m2 (1000 watts/m2, 100 mW/cm2)

• Nominal value = 0.8 kW/m2 (800 watts/m2, 80 mW/cm2)

 Total Global Solar Radiation

• Tilted solar collectors collect more radiation than placing them on

horizontal or vertical plane.
Sun Path Diagram
 Uses of sun-path diagram
1. The sun-path diagram can be used to predict the shading pattern
at a site.

• The altitude and azimuth of the trees, buildings, and other

obstructions along the southern horizon can be drawn on top of
the sun path diagram.

2. Use knowledge of solar angles to help select the best tilt angle
for PV modules.

• To expose them to the greatest solar radiation.

• To prevent one row module from shading another (in case of

multiple rows arrangement)
 Sun Peak Hour
It refers to the amount of solar radiation, which a particular location would
receive if the sun were shining at its maximum value for a certain number of
hours.

Where Hc = Average Global solar radiation

Sh = Peak Sun Hour

Ghana Peak Sunhrs
Month Accra Tamale
January 4.18 5.35
February 5.06 5.58
March 5.61 5.81
April 5.78 6.04
May 5.58 5.81
June 4.49 5.58
July 4.23 5.11
August 4.31 4.77
September 4.86 5.11
October 5.45 5.58
November 5.35 5.69
December 4.66 5.23
Average 4.96 5.47
Ghana Peak Sunhrs
 Air mass ratio
The air mass coefficient defines the direct optical path length through the
Earth's atmosphere, expressed as a ratio relative to the path length vertically
upwards, i.e. at the zenith.

The air mass coefficient can be used to help characterize the solar spectrum
after solar radiation has traveled through the atmosphere.

The air mass coefficient is commonly used to characterize the performance of

solar cells under standardized conditions.
 Sun tracking systems

In order to maximize solar radiation on a surface, tracking

systems, which keep surface facing the sun all day throughout
the year, can be used
 Solar Trackers
• Refers to array frames that follow the sun NOT Maximum Power Point
Trackers (controllers).

Module
Interconnecting
s
A Module
pipe
s

C C
X

Pivot
B
X B A

Refrigerant
Chambers

East
West
Gas Balance Type

Linear Actuator Drive Units

Solar Trackers

Pivot Point

Direction of turning

Gear Driven Type

Measurement instrumentation
Pyrheliometer
Measure direct beam solar irradiance

Sunshine recorder
The sensor at the front is used for measuring global
and diffuse solar radiation

Pyranometer
Unshaded pyranometer for measuring the
global irradiance (radiant flux, W/m²) on a
plane surface:

Shaded pyranometer for measuring only

the diffuse irradiance (radiant flux, W/m²)
on a plane surface
SOLAR ENERGY SYSTEMS
 Solar Energy
• Solar energy harnesses the potential of the sun’s radiant
light and heat, helping us reduce dependency on non-
renewable energy sources while mitigating environmental
impacts.

• The light (Photons) and heat that is harnessed using a range

of technologies such as solar power to generate electricity,
solar thermal energy, and solar architecture (passive solar).

Benefits: Costs:
• Completely renewable • Weather dependent
• Cost-effective • PV panels deteriorate
• Used to generate electricity • Maintenance
• Spatial requirements
 Solar Energy Technologies

The most commonly used solar technologies for homes and

businesses are;

• Solar photovoltaics and Concentrated Solar Power for

electricity

• Passive solar design for space heating and cooling,

• Solar thermal for solar water heating.

Businesses and industries use solar technologies to

diversify their energy sources, improve efficiency, and save
money.
 Solar Power Systems
There are three types of solar power systems and each system
offers a unique power generation and power storage experience.

Grid-tied Solar Power System

• As the name suggests,

a solar energy system that is
connected to the main electricity
grid

• A grid-tie inverter to communicate

with the utility grid so your home
can both import and export power
to the grid as needed.

• This solar setup has no battery

storage, which streamlines
installation and reduces your
system cost.
 Solar Power Systems
Hybrid Solar Power System

• Hybrid solar systems generate power in the same way as a common grid-
tie solar system but use special hybrid inverters and batteries to store
energy for later use. This ability to store energy enables most hybrid
systems to also operate as a backup power supply during a blackout,
similar to a UPS system.
• A hybrid solar system
intelligently switches between
using solar power, battery
storage, and grid power. It
allows you to avoid using grid
power at peak prices leading to
bill savings.
 Solar Power Systems
Off-grid Solar Power System
• An off-grid solar system is a self-contained energy system that
independently produces and stores electricity.

• Off-grid systems function by using solar panels, often mounted on the

rooftop, to absorb energy radiated from the sun and convert it to direct
current electricity before transferring it to a battery for storage.

There are two types of Off-grid systems;

• DC Off-grid system (No inverter is required since the appliances are all
DC-appliances

• AC Off-grid system (An inverter converts the energy stored in the

battery to alternating current electricity to power your home- AC
appliances)
Stand-alone DC Off-grid System
Configuration
Stand-alone AC Off-grid System
Configuration
Stand-alone (Off-grid) AC System

AC Off-grid system (An inverter converts the energy

stored in the battery to alternating current electricity to
power your home- AC appliances)

Components of an AC Off-grid System

• Solar Panels
• Battery
• Charger Controller
• Inverter
• AC Load
• Cables and electric meter
 SOLAR PV PANEL
A Solar panels (also known as "PV panels") is a device that converts light
from the sun, which is composed of particles of energy called "photons",
into electricity that can be used to power electrical loads.
Solar panels can be used for a wide variety of applications including
remote power systems for cabins, telecommunications equipment,
remote sensing, and of course for the production of electricity by residential
and commercial solar electric systems.
Solar PV Panel Configuration

Solar Cell

Solar Panel
Solar Array
 Types of Solar Panels
• Monocrystalline (single-cell) cells are solar
cells made from silicon crystallized into a
single crystal.

• Their efficiency is 15%–24%, but their

manufacturing is complex and expensive.

• Polycrystalline solar panels have blue-hued PV

cells with straight edges.

• They have a lower efficiency compared with

monocrystalline cells, which means you need more
panels to reach the same power output.

• However, polycrystalline panels also have a lower

price, since their manufacturing process is simpler
 Types of Solar Panels
• Thin-film solar panels are manufactured using
photovoltaic substances which include Amorphous
silicon (a-Si), copper indium gallium selenide (CIGS)
and cadmium telluride (CdTe).
• Low cost, low efficiency, Lowest installation cost
Lightweight and Shorter life span

• Mono- Passivated Emitter and Rear Contact” solar

cells, known as PERC solar cells, are becoming
more common today as an option for making solar
panels.

• PERC solar cells are modified conventional cells

that enable the cells to produce 6 to 12 percent
more energy than conventional solar panels

• Most expensive, highest efficiency and requires less

 Working Principles

• Silicon cells in the solar panels

absorb photons from the sun’s
light.

• The photons transfer their

energy to the electrons in the
Silicon material, causing
electron excitation (raising of
their energy levels).

• This allows them to break free from atomic bonds and move
more freely, resulting in an electric current.
 Battery
• A solar battery is a device that you can add to your solar power
system to store the excess electricity generated by your solar
panels.

• A solar battery can be an important addition to your solar power

system. It helps you store excess electricity that you can use
when your solar panels aren't generating enough energy and
gives you more options for how to power your home.

• Energy storage in a battery is typically given in units of amp-

hours (Ah) at
nominal voltage
specified discharge rate
 Battery
Currently, some of the solar batteries in the market are;

• Lithium ion battery

• Lead Acid Battery
• Gel battery
• AGM
What to consider when choosing a battery type:

• Load to be met
• Battery bank voltage
• Battery efficiency
• Storage duration (in days)
• Battery location temperature
• Depth of discharge
 Battery
Lithium-ion Battery
Lithium batteries are a relatively new type of rechargeable battery that has
grown in popularity in recent years due to their high energy density, low self-
discharge rate, and long lifespan.

They’re common in consumer electronics like smartphones, laptops, and

tablets, as well as electric vehicles and energy storage systems.

High energy density, high life cycle, inexpensive, 5-7 year life span,
Maintenance-free, expensive, and fast charging rate.

There are four types of lithium

batteries:
• lithium cobalt oxide (LCO),
• lithium iron phosphate (LFP),
• lithium manganese oxide (LMO), and
• lithium nickel cobalt aluminum oxide
(NCA)
 Lead Acid Battery
Battery
• Lead batteries are one of the most common and oldest types of batteries.
They are commonly found in cars, boats, and other vehicles, as well as in
home and business backup power systems

• They are well-known for their dependability and durability, which makes
them a popular choice for a wide range of applications.

• These batteries use lead and lead oxide plates submerged in an electrolyte
solution of sulfuric acid and water to produce electricity.

• Low energy density, low-moderate life cycle, inexpensive, 3-5 year life
span, requires maintenance and slow charging rate.

There are two common types of lead

batteries:
• flooded lead batteries and
• sealed lead also called valve-regulated
lead (VRLA) batteries.
 Battery
Gel battery
• A gel battery is similar to a lead battery, but it uses a gel electrolyte instead
of a liquid one.

• The gel electrolyte is composed of sulfuric acid and fumed silica, which
makes it thicker and more stable than traditional lead batteries.

• Gel batteries are widely used in medical equipment, wheelchairs, and other
applications that require a sealed battery.
• low energy density, moderate cost, and high life cycle, maintenance-free,
slow charging rate and life span of 10+

There are two popular types of gel

batteries:

• stationary gel batteries and

• deep-cycle gel batteries.

 Other Types of Batteries
• Nickel-Cadmium (NiCd)

• Vanadium redox battery and zinc-bromine battery

• Lithium Iron batteries

 Charge Controller
• A charge controller, charge regulator, or battery regulator limits the rate at
which electric current is added to or drawn from electric batteries to
protect against electrical overload and overcharging and may protect
against overvoltage.

• This prevents conditions that reduce battery performance or lifespan and

may pose a safety risk.

• It may also prevent completely draining ("deep discharging") a battery, or

perform controlled discharges, depending on the battery technology, to
protect battery life.
When installing a solar charge controller, it is recommended that you connect
and disconnect in the following order:

1. Battery to the controller first

2. PV array to the controller

3. Electrical load to the controller

Charge Controller Connection for a DC-
Off-grid System
Charge Controller Connection for an AC-
Off-grid System
Charge Controller Types
 Charge Controller Types

PWM Regulator

A PWM (pulse width modulation) controller can be thought of as an

(electronic) switch between the solar panels and the battery:

The switch is ON when the charger mode is in bulk charge mode. The
switch is “flicked” ON and OFF as needed (pulse width modulated) to
hold the battery voltage at the absorption voltage
 Inverter
• A power inverter, or inverter is a power electronic device or circuitry
that changes direct current (DC) to alternating current (AC).

• The resulting AC frequency obtained depends on the particular device

employed.

• Inverters do the opposite of rectifiers which were originally large

electromechanical devices converting AC to DC.

• In most cases, the input DC voltage is usually lower while the output
AC is equal to the grid supply voltage of either 120 volts or 240 Volts
depending on the country.

• The inverter may be built as standalone equipment for applications

such as solar power, or to work as a backup power supply from
batteries which are charged separately.
 Inverter Types

Off-grid Inverter

Grid-Tied Inverter

Hybrid Inverter

Off-grid Inverter
 Cables
• DC cables are designed to transmit DC electrical energy from one
point to another, typically from a power source to a load.

• The DC wires are mostly double-insulated because it is mostly used

for outdoor applications.

• The current carrying capability of the DC cable is better than the

AC cable.

Factors that affect cable performance

• Size
• Length
• Resistivity nature
• Conduction Material used
• Ampere
• Cross-sectional area
 Electric Appliances
• An electrical load is an electrical component or portion of a circuit
that consumes electrical power, such as electrical appliances and
lights inside the home.

• They can either be DC or AC appliances

ELECTRICAL BASICS
 Polarity
• A lack of electrons (positive charge) or an excess of
electrons (negative charge) results in a material assuming
a charge.
• When the electron distribution is equal the material will
be electrically neutral.

A charged battery with a large potential difference

discharges until the potential difference is zero
 Conductors
• When electrons can move easily from one atom to
another in a material it is a conductor.

• Generally, all metals are conductors, with silver being the

best conductor and copper second.

Insulators
• A material, in which the electrons tend to be more tightly
bound in their atomic orbits, is known as an insulator.

• They resist the flow of electric current and are used to

isolate electric current from areas where it is not required
or where it might prove dangerous.

• An example would be the coating on cables

 Semi-Conductors
• Materials that are neither insulators nor conductors but
exhibit some of the properties of both are called semi-
conductors.

Potential Difference
• A material, in which the electrons tend to be more tightly
bound in their atomic orbits, is known as an insulator.

• They resist the flow of electric current and are used to

isolate electric current from areas where it is not required
or where it might prove dangerous.

• An example would be the coating on cables

 Volts
• The Volt (V) is the unit of measure of the work needed to
move one unit of charge between two points.

• Voltage is the potential difference between two points.

• Voltage is sometimes referred to as Electromotive Force

or EMF and given the symbol (E) but the standard symbol
for a potential difference is V
 Current
• When a potential difference causes a charge to move
between two points, the charge in motion is called an
electric current.

• The unit of measure of current flow is the Ampere. (A).

Amperes
• Current is the flow of electrons between two
points, so when 1 Coulomb (6.25 x 10 18
electrons) flows past a given point in 1 second we
call it 1 Ampere of current.

• The symbol for current is I

• The above illustration could be used to explain voltage, current
and resistance.
• Let assume the water is the charge/electron those dot or arrow
moving.
• You see that the pipe has a wider opening at the top, meaning
less resistance, the charge is more and pressure is low.
• The slim part of the pipe the resistance is high, pressure (voltage
is high) But current is low.
Direction of Current Flow
(Electrons)
Electrons flow from a negative charge to a positive charge.

The flow of electrons from negative to positive

(electron flow) is equivalent to a flow of positive
charges from positive to negative (conventional
flow).
 Magnetic Effect
When any current flows in a conductor, a magnetic field is set up
around the wire.
 Resistance
• A conductor carrying an electric current will provide some
opposition to that current.

• This opposition is called resistance (R or r) and limits the

amount of current that can be made to flow through the
conductor.

• Good conductors have very little resistance; insulators have

large values of resistance.

• The unit of resistance is the Ohm (Ω).

 Circuits
• The path that current (I) follows from one charged point to
another is called a circuit.

• A potential difference (V) is applied to a circuit to cause

current to flow.

• Current flows through a circuit from an energy source to a

load.

• The current that flows is referred to as load current.

 Fuses and Circuit
Breakers
• A fuse is a device fitted to protect against excessive current
flows that could damage conductors in a circuit and to reduce
the risk of fire due to overheating of conductors

• Another alternative is the circuit breaker, which is a

mechanical device that will open the circuit under fault
conditions and can be reset when the fault is removed.
Direct Current (DC) and
Alternating Current (AC )

• In a direct current (DC) circuit - current flows in one direction

only.

• With battery systems, Current can only flow in one direction

because the polarity of the battery is fixed.

• An alternating current (AC) source regularly reverses the

polarity of its output
Ohms Law Energy
• Amperes = Volts
Ohms
• Energy is the capacity to do work.

• I = V
R
• Energy (Wh) = Power (W) x time
(hrs)
• also V = IR

• also R = V
I
 ENERGY
• Energy(E): Energy is the flow of
power over a period of time.
• The unit of Energy is Watt-Hour
• Energy = Power (W) x Time (t)

• Higher units of energy are kilowatt-

hour (kWhr) Megawatt-Hour
(mWhr) Gigawatt-Hour (gWhr)
Another definition for power is
Power (W) = Voltage (V) x Current
(I) P = I x V
 Worked examples

• 1. The power consumed by a fan is 70w, the fan

is powered for 4 hours, what is the energy used
or consumed?
• Solution
• Energy = Power x Time
• P = 70 w
• Time = 4hrs
• Energy = 70 x 4 = 280whr
 Example 2

2. An electric Iron is supplied with a voltage is of

220V and it draws a current of 7A, what is the
power consumed by the electric Iron?

Since P = I x V
V = 220V
I = 7A
Power = 220 x 7= 1500W
 Example 3
The voltage flowing through a cable to power a
load is 220V and the resistance of the cable is 22
ohms.
What is the current flowing through the cable?
Solution
From ohms’ law,

V = 220V
R = 22
I =?
Therefore
220 =
 Exercise

1. Convert 1540 watts to kW.

2. If the energy used by an LED TV is 500

watt-hours and the TV is powered for 6
hours, what is the power rating of the TV?

3. Find the current flowing through a

copper wire if the voltage applied is 220V
and the resistance of the wire is 15 ohms

4. During rainy and cloudy weather, does a

PV system generate electricity (True/False)
 Power rating of electrical equipment
• Power rating of electrical equipment Electrical
equipment like your stabilizer, generator,
transformers, inverters are usually rated in KVA.
Like 5Kva stabilizer, 3.5kva generator, 500Kva
transformer, 10kva inverter.
• Other Electrical equipment are rated in watts like
light bulb, fan, TV, iron, water heater say 10W
bulb, 70W fan Others are rated in horse power
like your Air conditioning unit, pumping machine
example 1horse power AC, 2hourse power
pumping machine All electrical equipment have
Real or Active power.
• The real/ Active power is measured in watts. For
example, a 15watts bulbs, that the real power it
consumes For a 10kva generator and 1 horse
power AC unit for example, we need to do some
conversions to know the real the power it
consume
 Types of Electrical Power

• We have 3 types of power

• Active power
• Apparent power
• Reactive power
• Active power is the real or actual
power consumed by electrical
devices. Its rated in Watts (Kw) or
megawatt (Mw)
• Apparent power is the combination
of reactive power and real power. Its
rated in VA (Kva) Reactive power is
the wasted power. Its rated in Kvar
 Power factor
• This is the ration of Real power to apparent
power
• Power Factor =()

• Power factor is also the efficiency of an electrical

system.
• A 98% pf has more efficiency than a 75% pf
Power factor varies from -1 to 0. Meaning the
values is from -1, 0, 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6,
0.7, 0.8, 0.9,1
• Most electrical devices have efficiency of 0.8
except if stated otherwise
 Worked examples
• A generator is rated 5kva (apparent power) and
has the power factor of 0.8.
• What is the real power of the generator?
• Solution

This means load should not be greater than 4kw

else the generator will be damaged Remember we
said AC units are rated in horse power.
We have 1hp, 1.5hp, 2hp etc. Now, 1HP = 745
watts (Real power) For example, if you have a 2HP
AC unit Then the real power will be 2 x 745 =
1,490 watts or 1.49kw
 Open Circuit

Battery 1
R2

R1
 Series
and
Parallel Circuits
 Battery
Battery 2
R2 1 I
Battery
I

R1

Batteries in Series
Series Circuits

Solar Modules in Series

R1
 IT = IR1 + IR2

R1 R2
Battery IR1 IR2

Parallel Circuits

Solar Modules in Parallel Combination Series/Parallel Circuits

 An array of three modules connected in parallel

 To increase the output current

 The voltage is the same
 The negative terminal of one panel is connected to the
negative terminal of the other and the positive terminal to
the positive terminal of the other
An array of three modules connected in series

 To increase the output voltage

 The current is the same
 The negative terminal of one panel is connected to the positive
terminal of the other
Calculate the following for the series and parallel connections
i. Total Power
ii. Total Voltage
iii. Total Current
Identify the type of connection done above
 Examples
• Now to understand these steps in a more mathematical way.

• Let’s take an example of a power plant of 2 MW, in which a large

number of PV modules are connected in series.
• The 2 MW inverter can take input voltage from 600 V to 900 V.

• Determine the number of modules be connected in series to

obtain a maximum power point voltage of 800 V. Also determine
the power delivered by this PV array. The parameters of the
single PV module are as follows;
• Panel Specification
• Open circuit voltage VOC = 35 V
• Voltage at maximum power point VM = 29 V
• Short circuit current ISC = 7.2 A
• Current at maximum power point IM = 6.4 A
Note the voltage requirement of the PV array

PV array open-circuit voltage VOCA = Not given

PV array voltage at maximum power point VMA = 800 V

Step 2:
Note the parameters of PV module that is to be connected in the series
string

Open circuit voltage VOC = 35 V

Voltage at maximum power point VM = 29 V

Short circuit current ISC = 7.2 A

Current at maximum power point IM = 6.4 A

Maximum Power PM
Step 3: Calculate the number of modules to be connected in
series

Take higher integer value 28 modules.

Due to the higher integer value of N,

The value of VMA and VOCA will also increase.

Step 4: Calculating the total power of the PV
array

Thus, we need 28 PV modules to be

connected in series having a total power of
5196.8 W to obtain the desired maximum PV
array voltage of 800 V.
Solar Cells & Solar
Modules
The Photo-electric Effect
and P-N Junctions
Electric field
n-type
p-type
Sunlight

Metallic Metal contact

grid

Flow of
electrons Direction of movement of free
electrons

Ammeter Electrical load

 Performance of Solar
Cells

• Efficiency

• Fill Factor

Fill Factor = FF =Imp x Vmp /Isc x Voc

= Pmax/ Isc x Voc

 STANDARD TEST
CONDITIONS:
• Irradiance = 1000 watts per square
metre

• Cell Temperature= 25 C

• Air Mass= 1.5

Typical I-V curve for a
solar cell
Current

Isc

Voltage
Voc
Power Curve for a Solar
Cell
Low Fill Factor

High Fill Factor

 Factors Which Effect the
Performance of Solar Cells

Irradiance

Temperature
 Creating a Module
I (current)

Single Cell

V (voltage)

0.6

Multiple Cells

V (voltage)

1.8 ( 3 x 0.6 )
 Dissimilar Cells
Connected in Series
C
D

A B B
A
C
D

A+B
Array with one defective
cell or shaded section
 PV Cell or Module

Bypass diodes
Diode

The Effect of Bypass Diodes

X Volts
0 Volts 0.5 X Volts 0.75 X Volts

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Blocking diodes
 Arrays

• A solar array is a collection of solar modules

wired in series to suit the system’s voltage

• and also wired in parallel to provide

sufficient charge to the battery bank.
Shading can be classified:
1. Temporary: can include dust, soot, snow, leaves, bird droppings,
and other types of soiling

2. Site objects-semi permanent

• Trees
• Buildings and building structures

3. Self-shading
 Standard Test Conditions

Standard Test Conditions (STC) STC is the set of criteria that

a solar panel is tested at. Since voltage and current change
based on temperature and intensity of light, among other
criteria, all solar panels are tested to the same standard test
conditions.

• This includes the cells’ temperature of 25℃ (77℉)

• Light intensity of 1000 watts per square meter, which is
basically the sun at noon
• Atmospheric density of 1.5, or the sun’s angle directly
perpendicular to the solar panel at 500 feet above sea
level
Normal Operating Cell Temperature (NOCT) NOCT takes a
more realist view of actual real world conditions, and gives you
power ratings that you will likely actually see from your solar
system.

Instead of 1000 watts per square meter, it uses 800 watts per
square meter, which is closer to a mostly sunny day with
scattered clouds.

These ratings will be lower than STC, but more realistic

Rated Output Specifications

Solar Panels Open Circuit Voltage (Voc) Open circuit

voltage is how many volts the solar panel outputs with no
load on it.

If you just measure with a voltmeter across the plus and

minus leads, you will read Voc.

Since the solar panel isn’t connected to anything, there is

no load on it, and it is producing no current.

The open circuit voltage helps you to determine the

number of solar panels you can wire in series going into
your inverter or charge controller.

This is the highest voltage that will be produce under

standard test condition.
Short Circuit Current (Isc)

Short Circuit Current is how many amps (i.e. current) the

solar panels are producing when not connected to a load
but when the plus and minus of the panels wires are
directly connected to each other.

If you just measure with an ammeter across the plus and

minus leads, you will read Isc.

This is the highest current the solar panels will produce

under standard test conditions.

When determining how many amps a connected device

can handle, like a solar charge controller or inverter, the
Isc is used, generally multiplied by 1.25 for National
Electrical Code (NEC) 80% requirements
Maximum Power Point (Pmax)

The Pmax is the sweet spot of the solar panel power

output It is where the combination of the volts and
amps results in the highest

When you use a Maximum Power Point Tracking

MPPT) charge controller or inverter, this is the point
that the MPPT electronics tries to keep the volts and
amps at to maximize the power output.

The wattage that a solar panel is listed as is the

Pmax where
Maximum Power Point Voltage (Vmpp)

The Vmpp is the voltage when the power output is

the greatest.

It is the actual voltage you want to see when it is

connected to the MPPT solar equipment (like an

MPPT solar charge controller or a grid-tie inverter)

under standard test conditions
 Maximum Power Point Current (Impp)

The Impp is the current (amps) when the power

output is the greatest.

It is the actual amperage you want to see when it is

connected to the MPPT solar equipment under
standard test conditions.

Maximum system voltage (Vmp)

It’s the maximum voltage that can be produced from
solar panels when wired in series or parallel This
voltage should not exceed 600V according to NEC
standard
 Combination
Series/Parallel Circuits

V=12 V=12
I=5 I=5

V=?
I=?

V=12 V=12
I=5 I=5

Note: 12V is nominal peak is app 17-18 Voc approx 20+ V

 Load
• Solar modules are used predominantly for battery charging in
Remote Area Power Supply systems

Battery Charging Load

Solar Batteries
 Energy Storage in
Batteries
The usual recorded measurement that reflects the energy stored in
batteries is ampere hours (Ah).

This is known as the battery capacity. Note: Ampere hours is not

a unit of energy, it is a unit of charge within the battery.

• To convert between Wh and Ah ….

• V is the nominal battery voltage

Ah = Wh Wh = Ah x V
V
 Battery Capacity
• The Ah capacity of a battery is quoted at some "rate"( eg C 20,
C100 ).
• This rate refers to the number of hours that a certain charge
current can be supplied by that battery.
• The hour is a small number in C20

• If the battery capacity in a battery is stated as C 20 = 100 Ah

then it can provide a current of 5 amps for 20 hours.

• If the battery capacity in a battery is stated as C 10 = 100 Ah

then it can provide a current of 10 amps for 10 hours.

• If the battery capacity in a battery is stated as C 100 = 100 Ah

then it can provide 1 amp continuously for 100 hours
 Example

C rating 120 100 50 25 10 5

(hrs)

Capacity 1156 1110 936 798 661 562

(Ah)

Capacities for 2P1110 PVSTOR Battery

 Charging Rate
• Charging rates are specified by battery manufacturers and
depend on the state of charge.

• A deeply discharged battery can be charged at a high rate of

charge ( eg C10 or faster for some time).

• As it approaches full charge it must be reduced to C50 or less to

minimise water loss from the battery
 Cut off voltage
• As current is drawn from a battery, the voltage drops.

• The minimum permissible voltage is called the cut off voltage.

• Drawing currents beyond this point can result in permanent

damage to the battery and a permanent loss of capacity.
 Depth of Discharge
(D.O.D)
• This is a measure of how much of the total battery capacity
has been consumed and is usually given as a percentage.

• Maximum depth of discharge is recommended by

Manufacturer BUT typically is 70% for solar batteries.

• Example:
A battery is rated 200Ah C10
It is discharged for 5 hours at 20 amps, Capacity Left is:
200 - (5 x 20) = 100 Ah.
That is, 100/200 of the initial capacity has been consumed.
Therefore the DOD is 50%.
 Typical Cycle Life
D.O.D. CYCLE LIFE ( Number of discharge cycles )
% of capacity Century Yuasa SSR BP Solar PVStor
@ 10 hr rate @ 100 hr rate

10 7500

20 3000

30 2700

40 2200

50 2050 2500
60 1800

75 1500

80 1400
 Efficiency of a Battery
Losses in energy occur because:

• During charging heat energy is generated and lost to the local

environment.

• The charging voltages are higher than the discharge voltages

which represents a loss in potential and therefore energy.

• If gassing occurs energy is used in breaking down the water.

Hence battery efficiency decreases as the battery approaches a
fully charged state.
 Columbic Efficiency
• This is Ampere Hour efficiency
= discharge Ah
Charge Ah
• Often about 90%

Watt Hour Efficiency

= discharge Wh
Charge Wh

• Charge volts higher than discharge volts so generally less than

80%
 Discharge Rate
• Battery manufacturers refer to the rate of discharge not by
amps but by the time it would take to completely discharge the
battery down to a specified voltage.

Equalisation
• During the charge-discharge process, some cells in a battery
system may develop a different voltage with respect to the
other cells.

• In order to equalise each cells' SOC, the system is deliberately

taken to a full state of charge with a charging voltage of
around 2.5 volts per cell.
 Gassing
• Battery cells on charge can dissociate H2O to hydrogen and
oxygen.

• Gassing is accompanied by a loss of water in the electrolyte.

• The hydrogen produced can explode if a spark is produced

anywhere nearby.

State of Charge (SOC)

• This is a measure of how much of the initial battery capacity is
available and is expressed in terms of % of rated capacity.

• For example a battery which is at 25% depth of discharge

(DOD) would be have a 75% state of charge (SOC).
 Self Discharge Rate
• Some chemical reaction takes place in battery cells even under
no load, which reduces the capacity of the battery.
• The rate of loss of charge in this process is called the self
discharge rate.
• This can be from about 1% to 3% per month depending on cell
type

Depth of Discharge

Battery
Capacity

State of Charge

DOD, SOC, Battery Capacity

 Specific Gravity
• This is the ratio of the density of the electrolyte with respect to
water.

• Sulphuric acid is heavier than water, therefore the specific

gravity (SG) of a cell's electrolyte is higher than 1.

Sulphation
• When left inactive with low state of charge for long periods,
batteries develop lead sulphate in crystalline form on the
surfaces of the two electrodes.

• Sulphation can result in a permanent loss of capacity as it is

difficult to reverse the effect of lead sulphate
 Battery Voltage
• Each cell in a lead-acid battery produces a voltage of
approximately 2 volts.

• Due to factors such as the internal resistance of the cells and

the temperature, the operating voltage of the battery cell is not
constant.

Determining the State of

Charge
• Specific Gravity
• Open Circuit Voltage
• Discharging and Charging Voltages
 SOC Using Open Circuit
Voltage
• This requires disconnecting any load and charging unit and
leaving the battery for at least 20 minutes for the battery
voltage to stabilse.

• SG + 0.84 = Battery Voltage (OC)

SOC using Discharging and

Charging Voltages
Using Manufacturers’ curves SOC/DOD is determined for:
– Set voltage
– Charge/discharge current
– Battery Temperature
 Effect of Temperature
• During cold periods, when the battery temperature is low, the
rate of chemical reaction is reduced. CAPACITY
REDUCES!!!

• Battery capacities are usually given at a reference temperature

of 250C

• Use Temperature Correction Factor

 Inverter
Array
Charge fuse DC Distribution links ( if req'd. )

Battery
Isolation Charge Main fuses
Controlle
r

Batterie
s

Combining
Batteries
Factors that affect
For Safety:
battery life
• Corrosion • Follow all standards
• Excessive Current – Ventilation
• Loss of Electrolyte
• Positive Plate Growth – Terminals Covered
• Plate Fatigue – Nothing above the batteries
• Separator Breakdown – Fusing
• Shedding
• Stratification
• Sulphation
• Vibration
 Maintenance of Batteries
• Batteries should be checked regularly for water loss. (NOT
ACID!!!)
• The specific gravity of the electrolyte should be measured.
• Voltages measured.
• Inspections should also be done for any acid leakage,
corrosion of terminals, and cracks in the casing

Life Expectancy
• Considered dead when cannot be charged to 80% of original
capacity
• Properly designed system with good batteries should get 8
years.
 Other Points to
Remember
• Keep batteries out of sunlight and dry

• Keep batteries off the ground

• Vermin should be kept out

Charge Controller
Single Stage Voltage
Sensing Regulator
Voltage
Boost V

Float
ON V

Boost
ON V

Time
Multi-Stage Switching
Regulator

Sub -Array

Sub -Array

Sub -Array Battery

Bank

Sub -Array

Sub -Array
Switch mode regulators
Battery E MAX
Voltage

BMAX

ABSV

FLTV

ETM ATM
BRTN

Boost Equalisation Absorption Float Boost

Time

Diagram-Courtesy of Plasmatronic’s Reference Manual

 Other Regulator Features
• Over Discharge Protection
• Temperature Compensation

Monitoring
• Voltage Sense
• Ammeter
• Volt Meter
• Amp-hour Meter
Installation of Regulators

• From an electrical circuit point of view the regulator can be

installed either near the batteries or at a convenient monitoring
location.

• Good ventilation is always required for power electronics

• Safety is a major consideration - electronics must not be

mounted above the battery bank or in any position that risks
spark ignition of hydrogen produced by the battery bank.
Inverter
AC Sine Wave
Peak Voltage

RMS Voltage  0.7 x peak voltage

AC Square Wave
Peak & RMS Voltage
 Factors affecting Performance of the inverter power
quality
• Frequency (Hz) : 50Hz in Ghana and 60Hz in USA
• Harmonic Distortion
• Reactance and Power

True Power
True Power ( W ) = V( volts ) x I ( amps ) x PF

Apparent Power

Apparent Power ( VA ) = V( volts ) x I ( amps ) : Units used are volt-

amps (VA)
SOLAR PV DESIGN
AND
INSTALLATION
 PV Sizing and Design
Before embarking on a solar project sizing and design, the contractor or
engineer must first perform a feasibility study of the site and solar radiation
to;

• To determine whether the project will be a success and beneficial to the

end-user.

• And ultimately determine if the project should go ahead. Each feasibility

study is different and considers different factors because the project has
its own unique goals and needs.

A feasibility study,

1. Propose an outline system design that meets the needs of the user
2. Determine the upfront cost required to deliver the proposed system
3. Determine the benefits of the system including the financial benefit and
human benefit.
4. Determine unforeseen barriers such as shading from buildings or
structures and how to tackle them.
Key Steps of a Solar Feasibility Study.

1. Site visit and discussion with user or client: The objective of this stage is to
understand the power needs of the client, and to view the site to understand
where the solar panels and other components could physically be located.

2. Determination of energy demand: Determine the daily and/or monthly energy

consumption of the site. This can be done either by estimating the load
through calculation or measuring the load using a data logger

3. Choosing the appropriate system type: determine what type of system will
meet the needs of the client or user of the system.

4. Calculating the required system size: Once the energy demand, client
requirements, and system type are known we can calculate the capacity of
solar panels and battery storage required to meet these needs

5. Specifying an outline design: Steps 1 to 4 complete the outline design of the

system. This information is brought together in a system specification. System
specification is important so you can explain the project to other technical
people, and ask for a quote for the system
6. Analyzing the benefits of the system: Determine the total cost of the
system and the potential savings compared to the current situation i.e. diesel
generator, or electricity grid. The human benefits should also be quantified
here i.e. health benefits, education benefits, time benefits, livelihood
benefits

7. Financial Model Consider how the cost of the system could be paid for,
either upfront or through a Pay as You Go system

8. Reviewing risks: it's important to think about the risks in the project at the
feasibility stage, for example, has there been a record of solar panel theft in
the area? are there coconut trees that might drop coconuts on the systems?

9. Determining system feasibility: considering the above information, a

conclusion should be made on the feasibility of the project.
 Energy Demand Assessment
1. An energy demand assessment is crucial for a solar PV feasibility study, it
determines the amount of energy used/ required by the site or facility in
question, this information is then used to design the appropriate Solar PV
system which can provide this amount of energy.

2. Energy demand/ Consumption is the amount of energy used or needed by

electrical appliances for a time interval. It is measured in watt-hours (Wh).

3. Energy demand/consumption (Wh) = Power consumption appliance (W) x

Time(h)

4. Daily energy demand is the total amount of electrical power needed or

used by all electrical appliances of a facility or building in a day.

5. It is measured in watt-hours (Wh) and calculated by summing the energy

demand of each appliance for a typical 24-hour period.

6. The maximum power consumption of the site must also be calculated

during the energy demand assessment. This is the combined power of all
appliances.
• Data logger to get the energy demand profile
• Take inventory of the individual appliance to get the daily energy demand
• Use utility (Electricity) bills to get the daily energy demand
 Calculate the energy consumption of each appliance:

1. Using the power and number of hours recorded above calculate the
daily energy for each appliance using the following formula

𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 = 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 ×

𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 × 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

2. Sum the energy demand of each appliance: sum every appliance's

energy demand to give the daily energy demand, a Factor of Safety (FoS)
is sometimes applied to account for calculation inaccuracies, power
losses in cables, and efficiency.

3. Determine if multiple daily energy demands are required: if there is a

significant seasonal or weekly change in daily energy demand then the
daily energy demand should be chosen for each scenario.
Applianc Qty Rated Total Number Daily
e Power (W) Rated of hours Demand
Power (W) used(h)
TV 4 100 400 8 4*100*8=

Computer 5 200 1000 8 5*200*8=

Iron 2 250 500 30min 2*250*0.5=

(0.5)hrs.
Fan 5 150 300 8 5*150*8

Light Bulb 8 10 180 8 8*18*8=

Sub-total

Total Daily Demand = FoS: 1.25 * Sub-total Daily Energy Demand

Calculating Daily Energy Demand of Fridges of AC Units
• The daily energy demand of a fridge or AC unit can not be calculated using
the above method, this is because they turn on and off periodically though
out the day to maintain a certain temperature, and therefore do operate at
one constant power.

• The recommended way to determine the energy demand of fridges and/ or

AC units is to use a kWh meter or data logger see below, however, an
estimation can be made for fridges if this is not possible for Fridges.

• Most fridges have an energy rating on their nameplate or datasheet, this

will state how much KWh the fridge uses over a typical day or year.

• This can be used to calculate daily energy demand, however, these

manufacturers stated values of often unrealistic so a factor of safety of 1.25
is recommended.

• 𝐼𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑑𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∗ 1.25 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦

𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛d
 Question 1:
Bomigo ICT lab has the following information:

5 bulbs of 12 watts each to be powered for 3 hours

2 fans of 80 watts each to be powered for 5 hours

2 desktop computers of 60 watts to be powered for 5 hours

each

5 HP laptops of 68 watts to be powered for 5 hours

Calculate the energy consumption of each appliance, the

total daily energy, and the maximum power consumption
 Calculating the Capacity of Solar PV Required
(solar sizing)
Array size: Array size is the rated power of all the solar panels in the system
combined, for example, if a system is comprised of 6 * 250W panels the array size is
1,500w or 1.5kW. Through this process, we are going to determine the array size
needed for our system.

Daily Energy Generation: The amount of energy generated by a solar array during a
given day.

There are Four key factors needed for determining the daily energy generation and
array size

Daily Energy Demand: as explained in the previous chapter, the daily energy
demand is the amount of energy required by the user from the solar panels during
the day.

Peak Sun Hours (PSH) It is defined as an hour throughout the day when the
intensity of the sunshine averages above 1000W/m2 and the solar panel achieves
its maximum power output.

Derating Factor (DF) Solar panels do not perform in the real world as they do in
theory, this is because of panel imperfection, dirt, and the age of the solar panels.
Component efficiencies Some energy generated by the solar
panels is wasted before it can get to the appliances due to the
inefficiencies of the other components;

• Cable efficiency (Ce) will vary depending on system

design by can be assumed at 95%.

• Inverter efficiency (Ie) unless known can be assumed at

95%.

• Charge controller efficiency (CCe) unless known,

assumed at 97%, MPPT charge controller.

• Battery Round Trip Efficiency (Brte) unless known can

be assumed at 80% for lead-acid and 90% for lithium-ion.
 Energy Demand Assessment

To perform Solar PV sizing, two techniques are used. There are,

• Energy method

Main assumption: Unlimited availability of space.

• Area method

Limit the amount of the capacity of the PV system to

be installed and energy to be generated

Both methods are subject to the availability of money/cost!

Calculating Array size
However, we need to calculate the array size which will produce a Daily Energy Generation
greater than our Daily Energy Demand.

By rearranging the above formula for Daily Energy generation, and by equating Daily
Energy Generation and Daily Energy Demand we arrive at the below formula

Where;

Cable efficiency (Ce)

Inverter efficiency (Ie),

Charge controller efficiency (CCe) controller,

Battery Round Trip Efficiency (Brte),

Derating Factor (DF),

Peak Sun Hours (PSH)

Calculating Daily Energy generation

To calculate daily energy generation using Peak Sun Hours

(PSH) the formula is simple. the array size multiplied by PSH,
multiplied by all the relevant efficiencies.

See below:

𝐷𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝐺𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝐴𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑦 𝑆𝑖𝑧𝑒 × 𝑃𝑆𝐻 × 𝐷𝐹

× 𝐶𝑒 × 𝐼𝑒 × 𝐶𝐶𝑒 × 𝐵𝑟𝑡𝑒

Where;
Cable efficiency (Ce), Inverter efficiency (Ie), Charge controller
efficiency (CCe) controller, Battery Round Trip Efficiency (Brte),
Derating Factor (DF), Peak Sun Hours (PSH
Question 2:
You are designing an AC off-grid solar system for a family in the Volta Region,
Calculate the required array size given the following information.

• The system will use Led Acid batteries

• Their daily energy demand is 2.2kWh and is the same throughout the year.

• They are OK with using less energy during the rainy season if it reduced the
system cost. (Make Assumptions where necessary)

Question 3:
You are designing a DC off-grid solar system for a family in the Volta Region,
Calculate the required array size given the following information.

• The system will use Led Acid batteries

• Their daily energy demand is 2.2kWh and is the same throughout the year.

• They are OK with using less energy during the rainy season if it reduced the
system cost
Question 4:
A house in Kumasi has the following electrical appliance usage:

• One 18-Watt fluorescent lamp with electronic ballast is used 4 hours per day.

• One 60-Watt fan is used for 2 hours per day.

• One 75-Watt refrigerator that runs 24 hours per day with a compressor that runs
12 hours and off 12 hours (Assume full power for 12 hours and zero power for
12 hours)
 Available area method to Size the Array
Using this approach requires ;
• The estimation of available/useful areas for the solar PV system

• Determine the area of the selected PV module (manufacturers sheet)

The capacity of the PV system and the number of modules (Nmod) that can be
accommodated in the useful area are then determined.
Numbers of modules in series (N mod/string):

= System Voltage / Nominal Voltage ( Voltage of one Panel).

Numbers of modules in strings (Parallel Connection)”

Total numbers of modules (series and parallel Connection):

= N mod/string (series connection) * N mod (parallel connection)

 Calculating the correct Battery Capacity
This is a crucial task if mistakes are made either.
1. The system will be very expensive because too many batteries have been
installed

2. The system will not work well at night-time, and/ or during the rainy season
Several additional parameters are needed for this calculation;

Depth of Discharge (DoD) is the percentage of the batteries energy capacity

that is available for use regularly • Led Acid = 50% • Lithium-Ion – 90%

Days of Autonomy (DoA): the number of days that you need the system to
operate when there is no power produced by PV panels. Usually, this is 1,
although, for low costs systems where reliable power is not a priority 0.5 could
be used, there may be times when 2 or 3 could be used if having reliable power
is very important.

Battery Discharge efficiency (BDe): this is the energy lost during a battery
discharging, it can be assumed as the halfway point between the Round Trip
Efficiency (RTE) and 100%, therefore. • Led acid – 90% • Lithium-Ion -95%
Calculation
 Calculation steps
1. Divide the Daily Energy Demand by the Battery Discharge efficiency and
Inverter efficiency to get the required usable energy from the battery

2. Divide the answer from Step 1 by the depth of discharge of the battery to
give to actual battery capacity required

3. Multiply the answer from step 2 with the Days of autonomy required to
get the Battery Capacity in Who The above steps are equivalent to the
formula below:

Design margin or factor of safety (DM) Tc is a temperature correction

• To account for a sudden change in the electrical load
factor
• Recommended value is 1.10
Question 5:
Given the Daily Energy Demand calculated for House in Kumasi
(1,419Wh/day)

What battery capacity would be required to provide 0.5 days of autonomy?

Assume:
A battery discharge efficiency of 90%

Inverter efficiency of 95%

And Depth of discharge of 50%

Batteries’ voltage and/or capacity can be increased by arranging
the batteries either in parallel, series or a combination of parallel
and series.
Question 6:
A small school in a remote off-grid area wants to remove its generator and use only photovoltaics
to power all its loads. They have decided to install an Off-grid AC solar PV system.

a) Calculate the Daily Energy Demand of the school

b) Calculate the required Array Size
c) Calculate the required battery capacity (assume Days of Autonomy = 3 days)
d) What is the importance of choosing the days of autonomy when sizing a battery?
 Charge Controller
1. Maximum current (controller output current) is given as:

2. MPPT charge controllers maximum voltage limit is given

as:

where 1.10 is a safety factor, N mod/s is the number of modules per string and
Voc is the open-circuit voltage of each module.

3. Input current from the array (minimum controller input

current)

where 1.25 is a safety factor, N strings is the number of strings and Isc is the
open circuit current of each module.
 Inverter
• The capacity of the inverter must be large enough to handle
the sum of the power rating of all connected appliances,

• Must have the same nominal voltage as the battery,

• Has to have extra capacity to start for these surges, which

can be 2 or 3 times higher than the continuous load,

• For safety reasons, the minimum inverter capacity should be

at least 25% - 30%
• greater than the power rating of all connected appliances,
 • The inverter capacity can be estimated using the PV module
rated capacity and sizing ratio.

• The sizing ratio (Rs ) is defined as the ratio of the PV module

rated capacity at standard test conditions (STC) to the rated
inverter capacity

where P pv is the rated inverter capacity. P inv is also called

inverter load ratio (ILR) or oversizing ratio (OSR).
 Number of modules per string
• The sum of the voltage of all modules connected in series (or string) should be
less than the maximum inverter input voltage, and greater than the minimum
input voltage.

• Module voltage and hence, the entire PV system voltage depends on the ambient
temperature.
• The maximum number of modules per string can be determined based on the
minimum possible cell temperature (site ambient temperature).

It is given as:

• Where V inv, max is the inverter maximum operating (or MPP) voltage,
Voc, the mod is the temperature-corrected module open-circuit voltage,
and Vmpp, the mod is the temperature-corrected nominal voltage.
 Number of modules per string
• The sum of the voltage of all modules connected in series (or string) should be
less than maximum inverter input voltage, and greater than the minimum input
voltage.

• Module voltage and hence, the entire PV system voltage depends on the ambient
temperature.

• The minimum number of modules per string is determined based on the

maximum possible cell temperature (site ambient temperature).

It is given as:

Where Vinv (min, operating-range) is the minimum MPP voltage operating range
of the inverter and VMPP, mod (= Voc, mod) is the temperature-corrected module
voltage
With a maximum and minimum number of modules
determined, the number of modules per string (N mod/s) can
be any value between

The number of strings can be estimated from:

Maintenance and Fault Finding
Maintenance Schedule and Log
Books
• The documentation supplied to the
customer should include a loose leaf
booklet which contains maintenance
log sheets for each of the equipment
supplied.
 Maintenance
Solar Arrays and Modules
• Clean modules (regularly as required)
• Check array structure for loose mounting
connections (when on site)
• Check inter-module cables and other cables for
mechanical damage (when on site)
• Check total Array output voltage and current and
compare to what would be expected under the
existing conditions. (when on site)
 Maintenance
Solar Arrays and Modules: Log Book
 Fault Finding
Solar Modules and Arrays

• If the solar array does not appear to be

producing the same current under similar
light conditions that it was in the past then
it is generally one of the following:
 Fault Finding
Solar Modules and Arrays
• Modules are now shaded for some reason eg
trees grown
• Modules or parts of them are covered in dirt, bird
dropping etc or are damaged
• There is a loose connection in the wiring system
or a hot joint has occurred and the cable has
failed.
• The regulator/charge controller is faulty
• Diodes have failed in some modules
• Module has failed.
 Fault Finding: Process to follow
Solar Modules and Arrays
• Look for dirt on modules or objects shading the
modules
• Check the operation of the regulator
• If it not obvious that it is either the shading of
the modules or the regulator the service
technician must then find whether the fault is in a
module (or modules) or in the interconnection
wiring.
• If there is a main junction box, check this for any
loose wires.
 Fault Finding
Solar Modules and Arrays

• If it appears that it is the modules then

have a person watch the ammeter for the
array and have another person cover the
strings one by one until you find the
problem.
 Maintenance
Regulators/ charge controller
• keeping the unit clean and minimise
the possibility of dust. Clean when
required
• Ensuring the unit is not “invaded” by
insects and spiders.
• Ensuring all electrical connections
are kept clean and tight
 Fault Finding
Regulators
• Many of the regulators that are available
today are microprocessor controlled and
can require extensive programming on
commissioning. It is critical that any
installer or maintainer of systems is
completely familiar with the regulator
they have installed or are testing.
 Fault Finding
Regulators
• The main faults that will occur in a system that
will require that the solar regulator be tested are:
∙ Batteries are low in voltage and you want to check that solar
power is passing through the regulator to the batteries.
∙ The customer has complained that the inverter or other
equipment has shut down due to high battery voltage.
∙ Meters that are recording solar current do not show any
current at all during the day.
∙ The regulator has completely failed and no indicating lights,
meters etc on the regulator are working.
 Fault Finding
Regulators: First Two Tests
• Measure the battery voltage at the
terminals on the regulator that are
specified for battery connection.
• Measure the array voltage at the
terminals on the regulator that are
specified for array connection.
(ensure that it is the array voltage
and not just the battery voltage
being transposed on these terminals)
 Fault Finding
Regulators : Two Main Faults
• Failed open circuit (i.e. it will not
pass the solar power to the
batteries)
• Failed closed or short circuit (i.e.it
does not regulate the power and is
always passing the power through to
the batteries).
 Maintenance
Batteries (regularly)
• Reading & recording of specific gravity
(wet cell batteries) (Note some manufacturers require
this monthly for warranty)

• Checking of battery intercell connections

and cable terminations for looseness and
corrosion.
• Checking of damage on battery cases.
• Checking of electrolyte level
• Checking and recording cell voltage level
 Maintenance
Batteries: Log Book
 Fault Finding
Batteries: Testing Batteries
• Check that all terminal connections are
tight and clean.
• Measure the battery voltage for the whole
bank at the terminals where the
load/charge circuits are connected.
• If the battery bank terminal voltage is as
expected then the fault could be in the
wiring to the loads/charging devices or the
fault only appears under load.
 Fault Finding
Batteries: Testing Batteries
• If wet cell batteries measure the SG’s for each of
the cells. If the battery bank SG’s are as
expected then the fault could be in the wiring to
the loads/charging devices or the fault only
appears under load.
• If the voltages and SG’s appear OK and you do
not suspect that the interconnection wiring is at
fault then the individual cell voltages should first
be measured with no load and then a large load.
One battery cell might have a short circuit which
only appears under load.
 Maintenance
Inverter (and battery Charger)

• keeping the unit clean and minimise

the possibility of dust. Clean when
required
• Ensuring the unit is not “invaded” by
insects and spiders.
• Ensuring all electrical connections
are kept clean and tight.
 Fault Finding
Inverter
• The inverters that are commonly used in systems are
microprocessor controlled and can be very sophisticated.
The main role of the inverter is to provide 230V AC (or 3
phase 400V in larger systems) from the DC battery
voltage. Obviously if the inverter is not providing an AC
voltage it has failed.
• This failure could have occurred from a simple loose
connection or from a circuit breaker failure or it could
have been from a faulty power board or boards.
 Maintaining System Integrity
• The above maintenance checks relate to the individual
components that are contained with a system. For the
individual components to work as a system they have
been interconnected by both power cables and control
cables.

• It is therefore essential than when you are undertaking

any equipment maintenance a visual check should be
undertaken on the whole system to ensure that there is
no potential threat to the performance and/or safe
operation of the system.
 Troubleshooting the Whole
System
• In general the customer will complain that
they do not have any power at all. This
could have resulted from:
–∙ Failure of any one (or more) particular
item
–∙ Failure of the interconnection wiring
between the system components.
–∙ The customer using more power than
the system was originally designed for.