Artificial Intelligence – Overview

Since the invention of computers or machines, their

capability to perform various tasks went on
growing exponentially. Humans have developed the
power of computer systems in terms of their
diverse working domains, their increasing speed,
and reducing size with respect to time.
A branch of Computer Science named Artificial
Intelligence pursues creating the computers or
machines as intelligent as human beings.
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What is Artificial Intelligence?
According to the father of Artificial Intelligence, John
McCarthy, it is “The science and engineering of making
intelligent machines, especially intelligent computer
programs”.
Artificial Intelligence is a way of making a computer, a
computer-controlled robot, or a software think
intelligently, in the similar manner the intelligent
humans think.
AI is accomplished by studying how human brain thinks,
and how humans learn, decide, and work while trying
to solve a problem, and then using the outcomes of this
study as a basis of developing intelligent software and
systems.
Philosophy of AI
While exploiting the power of the computer systems, the
curiosity of human, lead him to wonder, “Can a machine
think and behave like humans do?”
Thus, the development of AI started with the intention of
creating similar intelligence in machines that we find and
regard high in humans.
Goals of AI
To Create Expert Systems − The systems which exhibit
intelligent behavior, learn, demonstrate, explain, and
advice its users.
To Implement Human Intelligence in Machines − Creating
systems that understand, think, learn, and behave like
humans.
What Contributes to AI?
Artificial intelligence is a science and technology
based on disciplines such as Computer Science,
Biology, Psychology, Linguistics, Mathematics, and
Engineering. A major thrust of AI is in the
development of computer functions associated
with human intelligence, such as reasoning,
learning, and problem solving.
Out of the following areas, one or multiple areas
can contribute to build an intelligent system.
Programming Without and With AI
The programming without and with AI is different in following ways −

Programming Without AI Programming With AI

A computer program without AI can answer A computer program with AI can answer the
the specific questions it is meant to solve. generic questions it is meant to solve.
Modification in the program leads to
change in its structure.
What is AI Technique?
In the real world, the knowledge has some unwelcomed
properties −
Its volume is huge, next to unimaginable.
It is not well-organized or well-formatted.
It keeps changing constantly.
AI Technique is a manner to organize and use the knowledge
efficiently in such a way that −
It should be perceivable by the people who provide it.
It should be easily modifiable to correct errors.
It should be useful in many situations though it is incomplete or
inaccurate.
AI techniques elevate the speed of execution of the complex
program it is equipped with.
Applications of AI
AI has been dominant in various fields such as −
Gaming − AI plays crucial role in strategic games such as chess,
poker, tic-tac-toe, etc., where machine can think of large number
of possible positions based on heuristic knowledge.
Natural Language Processing − It is possible to interact with
the computer that understands natural language spoken by
humans.
Expert Systems − There are some applications which integrate
machine, software, and special information to impart reasoning
and advising. They provide explanation and advice to the users.
Vision Systems − These systems understand, interpret, and
comprehend visual input on the computer. For example,
A spying aero plane takes photographs, which are used to
figure out spatial information or map of the areas.
Doctors use clinical expert system to diagnose the patient.
Police use computer software that can recognize the face
of criminal with the stored portrait made by forensic artist.
Speech Recognition − Some intelligent systems are capable of
hearing and comprehending the language in terms of sentences
and their meanings while a human talks to it. It can handle
different accents, slang words, noise in the background, change in
human’s noise due to cold, etc.
Handwriting Recognition − The handwriting recognition
software reads the text written on paper by a pen or on screen by a
stylus. It can recognize the shapes of the letters and convert it into
editable text.
Intelligent Robots − Robots are able to perform the tasks given
by a human. They have sensors to detect physical data from the
real world such as light, heat, temperature, movement, sound,
bump, and pressure. They have efficient processors, multiple
sensors and huge memory, to exhibit intelligence. In addition,
they are capable of learning from their mistakes and they can
adapt to the new environment.
 History of AI
Here is the history of AI during 20th century −

Year Milestone / Innovation

Karel Čapek play named “Rossum's Universal Robots” (RUR) opens in London, first
1923 use of the word "robot" in English.

Foundations for neural networks laid.

1943

Isaac Asimov, a Columbia University alumni, coined the term Robotics.

1945

Alan Turing introduced Turing Test for evaluation of intelligence and

1950 published Computing Machinery and Intelligence. Claude Shannon
published Detailed Analysis of Chess Playing as a search.
John McCarthy coined the term Artificial Intelligence. Demonstration of the first
1956 running AI program at Carnegie Mellon University.

John McCarthy invents LISP programming language for AI.

1958
 Danny Bobrow's dissertation at MIT showed that computers can
1964 understand natural language well enough to solve algebra word problems
correctly.
Joseph Weizenbaum at MIT built ELIZA, an interactive problem that carries
1965 on a dialogue in English.
Scientists at Stanford Research Institute Developed Shakey, a robot,
1969 equipped with locomotion, perception, and problem solving.
The Assembly Robotics group at Edinburgh University built Freddy, the
1973 Famous Scottish Robot, capable of using vision to locate and assemble
models.
The first computer-controlled autonomous vehicle, Stanford Cart, was
1979 built.
1985 Harold Cohen created and demonstrated the drawing program, Aaron.
Major advances in all areas of AI −
•Significant demonstrations in machine learning
•Case-based reasoning , Multi-agent planning , Scheduling
1990 •Data mining, Web Crawler, Natural language understanding and
translation , Vision, Virtual Reality , Games
 The Deep Blue Chess Program beats the then world
1997 chess champion, Garry Kasparov.

Interactive robot pets become commercially available.

MIT displays Kismet, a robot with a face that expresses
2000 emotions. The robot Nomad explores remote regions of
Antarctica and locates meteorites.
Artificial Intelligence - Intelligent Systems
While studying artificially intelligence, you need
to know what intelligence is. This chapter covers
Idea of intelligence, types, and components of
intelligence.
What is Intelligence?
The ability of a system to calculate, reason,
perceive relationships and analogies, learn from
experience, store and retrieve information from
memory, solve problems, comprehend complex
ideas, use natural language fluently, classify,
generalize, and adapt new situations.
Types of Intelligence
As described by Howard Gardner, an American developmental
psychologist, the Intelligence comes in multifold −
AI - Agents & Environments
An AI system is composed of an agent and its environment.
The agents act in their environment. The environment may
contain other agents. What are Agent and Environment?
An agent is anything that can perceive its environment
through sensors and acts upon that environment through
effectors.
A human agent has sensory organs such as eyes, ears, nose,
tongue and skin parallel to the sensors, and other organs such
as hands, legs, mouth, for effectors.
A robotic agent replaces cameras and infrared
range finders for the sensors, and various motors
and actuators for effectors.
A software agent has encoded bit strings as its
programs and actions.
Agent Terminology
Performance Measure of Agent − It is the
criteria, which determines how successful an
agent is.
Behavior of Agent − It is the action that agent
performs after any given sequence of percepts.
Percept − It is agent’s perceptual inputs at a given
instance.
Percept Sequence − It is the history of all that an
agent has perceived till date.
Agent Function − It is a map from the precept
sequence to an action.
Rationality
Rationality is nothing but status of being
reasonable, sensible, and having good sense of
judgment.
Rationality is concerned with expected actions and
results depending upon what the agent has
perceived. Performing actions with the aim of
obtaining useful information is an important part of
rationality.
What is Ideal Rational Agent?
An ideal rational agent is the one, which is
capable of doing expected actions to maximize its
performance measure, on the basis of −
Its percept sequence
Its built-in knowledge base
Rationality of an agent depends on the following
−
The performance measures, which determine the
degree of success.
Agent’s Percept Sequence till now.
The agent’s prior knowledge about the
environment.
The actions that the agent can carry out.
A rational agent always performs right action,
where the right action means the action that
causes the agent to be most successful in the
given percept sequence. The problem the
agent solves is characterized by Performance
Measure, Environment, Actuators, and
Sensors (PEAS).