Analysis and Design of

Algorithms(ADA)
GTU # 3150703

Unit-1
Basics of Algorithms and
Mathematics

Rupesh Vaishnav
Computer Engineering Department
Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology, Rajkot
[email protected]
9428037452
 Outline
Looping
 Introduction to Algorithm
• Definition
• Characteristics
• Types
• Simple Multiplication Methods
 Mathematics for Algorithmic Sets
• Set Theory
• Functions and Relations
• Vectors and Matrices
• Linear Inequalities and Linear Equations
• Logic and Quantifiers
Introduction to Algorithm
What is an Algorithm?
 A step-by-step procedure, to solve the different kinds of problems.
 Suppose, we want to make a Chocolate Cake.

Input Process Output

Ingredients Recip Cak
e e
 An unambiguous sequence of computational steps that transform the input into the output.

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What is an Algorithm?
 A process or a set of rules to be followed to achieve desired output, especially by a computer.

Input

Algorithm Program Output

 An algorithm is any well-defined computational procedure that takes some value, or a set
of values as input and produces some value, or a set of values as output.

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Characteristics of An Algorithm
 Finiteness: An algorithm must always terminate after a finite number of steps.
 Definiteness: Each step of an algorithm must be precisely defined.
 Input: An algorithm has zero or more inputs.
 Output: An algorithm must have at least one desirable output.
 Effectiveness: All the operations to be performed in the algorithm must be sufficiently basic
so that they can, in principle be done exactly and in a finite length of time.

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Types of Algorithm
 Simple recursive algorithms
 Backtracking algorithms
 Divide and conquer algorithms
 Dynamic programming algorithms
 Greedy algorithms
 Branch and bound algorithms
 Brute force algorithms
 Randomized algorithms

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Simple Multiplication Methods

1. American approach 2. English approach

981 981
1 23 4 1 23 4

3924 981
2943 1962

1962 2943

981 3924

1210554 1210554

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Simple Multiplication Methods
3. à 𝒍𝒂 𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒔𝒆 multiplication
i. Write the multiplicand and multiplier side by side. 981 1234 1234
ii. Make two columns, one under each operand. 490 2468
iii. Repeat step iv and v until the number in the left column is
1. 245 4936 4936
iv. Divide the number in the left hand column by 2, ignoring 122 9872
any fractions.
61 19744 19744
v. Double the number in the right hand column by adding it to
itself. 30 39488
vi. Next cross out each row where the number in the left hand
column is even. 15 78976 78976
vii. Finally add up the numbers that remain in the right hand 7 157952 157952
column.
3 315904 315904
1 631808 631808

1210554
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Simple Multiplication Methods
4. Multiplication by divide and conquer
 Both the multiplicand and the multiplier must have the same number of digits and this
number be a power of 2. If not then it can be done by adding zeros on the left if
necessary.
Multiplicand 0981
i. Multiply left half of the multiplicand by left half of multiplier and
shift the result by no. of digits of multiplier i.e. 4. Multiplier 1234

ii. Multiply left half of the multiplicand by right half of the multiplier,
Multiply Shift Result
shift the result by half the number of digits of multiplier i.e. 2.
(09) * (12) 4 108. . . .
iii. Multiply right half of the multiplicand by left half of the multiplier, (09) * (34) 2 306. .
shift the result by half the number of digits of multiplier i.e. 2.
(81) * (12) 2 972. .
iv. Multiply right half of the multiplicand by right half of the (81) * (34) 0 2754
multiplier the result is not shifted at all.
1210554
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Exercises
 Multiply following values using divide and conquer method.
1. 4567×6543
2. 31415975×8182818

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Mathematics for Algorithmic
Sets
Set Theory
 A set is an unordered collection of distinct objects.
 The objects in a set are called elements or members of the set.

Roster Set-builder
Notation Notation
Example 1 Example 2

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Set Theory
 Finite & Infinite sets: A set is finite if it contains a finite number of elements, otherwise it is
an infinite set.

Example 1 Example 2

Set is a finite set Set is an infinite set

 Subset: For two sets 𝐴 and 𝐶, we say that 𝐶 is a subset of 𝐴, written as 𝐶⊆𝐴, if each member
of set 𝐶 is also a member of set 𝐴.

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Set Theory
 Proper Subset: A proper subset of a set is a subset of that is not equal to

Example 1 Example 2
If and If and
Then set is a proper subset of . Then set C is a subset of , but it is not a
proper subset of since .

A A=
B C

𝑩⊂ 𝑨 𝑪⊆ 𝑨

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Set Theory
 Power Set: Let be the set. The power set of , written as , is the set of all subsets of .
 Example:
 then the power set of

 Cardinality of set: The cardinality of a set denotes the number of elements in a set. The
cardinality of a set is denoted by or .
 Examples:
1. If is a set of English alphabets the
2. The cardinality of infinite set denoted as
3. The empty set denoted as is the unique set whose cardinality is .

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Set Theory
 Complement: The complement of a set is the set that contains every element of the
Universal set U but not in A.
𝐴′ = {𝑥 | 𝑥 ∈ 𝑈𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑥∉ 𝐴}
 Example:
 Consider and
Then

A
’
A
U
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Set Operations
 Union: The union of two different sets and is the set of all distinct elements of sets and .

𝑨∪ 𝑩={𝒙∨𝒙∈ 𝑨𝒐𝒓 𝒙 ∈𝑩}

 Example:
 Consider and
Then

A B

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Set Operations
 Intersection: The intersection of two sets and is the set that contains all elements of that
also belong to but no other elements.

𝑨∩ 𝑩={𝒙∨𝒙∈ 𝑨𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒙∈𝑩}

 Example:
 Consider and
Then

A B

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Set Operations
 Set Difference: The set difference of two sets and is the set of elements that are in but not
in .

𝑨– 𝑩={𝒙∨𝒙∈ 𝑨𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒙∉ 𝑩}
 Example:
 Consider and
Then

A B

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Set Operations
 Symmetric Difference: The symmetric difference of two sets and is the elements that are
in but not in and the elements that are in but not in .

𝑨– 𝑩={𝒙∨𝒙∈ 𝑨𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒙∉ 𝑩}
 Example:
 Consider, and
Then

A B

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Set Operations
 Sequences: A sequence of objects is a list of objects in some order.
 Example: the sequence 7, 21, 57 would be written as (7, 21, 57)
 In a set the order does not matter but in a sequence it does.
 Repetition is not permitted in a set but repetition is permitted in a sequence. So, (7, 7, 21, 57)
is different from (7, 21, 57).
 Tuples: Finite sequences are called tuples.
 Examples:
1. (7, 21) 2-tuple or pair
2. (7, 21, 57) 3-tuple
3. (7, 21, ..., k ) k-tuple

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Set Operations
 Cartesian Product: The Cartesian product of two sets and is the set of all ordered pairs
where and .

𝑨× 𝑩={(𝒂,𝒃)∨𝒂∈ 𝑨𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒃∈ 𝑩}
 Example:

(1 , 𝑥 ) (1 , 𝑦 )
(2 , 𝑥) (2 , 𝑦 )
(3 , 𝑥) (3 , 𝑦)

𝐴× 𝐵
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Relation
 Let and be two sets. Any subset of their Cartesian product is a relation.
 A relation defines the relationship between values of sets.
 It is defined between the x-values and y-values of the ordered pairs.
 The set of all x-values is called the domain, and the set of all y-values is called the range.

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Properties of the Relation
 Reflexive: Let be a set, and let be a binary relation on . Relation is reflexive if,

∀ 𝒙:[(𝒙∈ 𝑨)→((𝒙,𝒙)∈ 𝑹)]

Example 1 Example 2
and and
so,

Reflexive Not Reflexive since

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Properties of the Relation
 Symmetric: A relation on a set is called symmetric if whenever , for some .

∀ 𝒙:∀ 𝒚 :[((𝒙 ,𝒚)∈𝑹)→((𝒚 ,𝒙)∈𝑹)]

Symmetric Asymmetric
Example 1 Example 2
and and
So,

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Properties of the Relation
 Transitive: A relation on a set , is called transitive if whenever and , then , for .

∀ 𝒙:∀ 𝒚 :∀ 𝒛[([(𝒙,𝒚)∈𝑹]∧[(𝒚 ,𝒛)∈𝑹])→((𝒙,𝒛)∈𝑹)]

Not
Transitive Transitive
Example 1 Example 2
and and
So,
So,

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Equivalence Relation
 Equivalence Relation declares or shows some kind of equality or equivalence.
 If the relation satisfies all three properties reflexive, symmetric and transitive then it is
called an Equivalence Relation.
 Equality ‘=’ relation is the equivalence relation because equality proves the required
conditions.
1. Reflexive: is true for all values of .
2. Symmetric: and is true for all values of and .
3. Transitive: if and is true for all values then we can say that .

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Functions
 Relationship between two sets of numbers is known as a function.
 Function is the special kind of relation in which there is only one output for each input.
 A number in one set is mapped to number in another set by the function.
 Example: this tree growscm every year, so the height of the tree is related to its age using the
function :

So, if the age is years,

then height is cm
 is like saying 10 is related to 200.
 Here, age is called Domain and height is called Codomain.

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Function Notations
 Domain: Values given as input to the function is called the domain of the function.
 Codomain: Values that may possibly come out of a function is the codomain.
 Range: Actual values that come out of a function is a range.

Codomain
 Example:
2
Domain 1 3
4
2 5
6
3 7
4 8
9
10
 The Range of the function
Domain Codomai
n
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Relation & Function
Relation 1 Relation 2
Is not a function since elements of Is a function since elements of
domain point to multiple elements of domain point to only one element of
codomain. codomain.
Ana
Mit
Sam
CX Yug Ana CX
CY Jen Yug CY
CZ Tom Ra CZ
Ra m
m
Mit
Neel
Division Students Students Division
(Domain) (Codomain) (Domain) (Codomain)
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Functions Types
 If the range of function and codomain of function are equal then the function is said to be
onto or surjective or surjection.
Codomai
 Example: n
,
where and
𝑨 𝑩
-
- 𝟏
𝟏 𝟒
𝟐
𝟗
 Range of function 𝟑
𝟒 𝟏𝟔
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Functions Types
 A function is injective or one-to-one if there do not exist two distinct andsuch that
 Example:
The function , is a one-to-one function,
where and

𝟏 𝟐
𝟐 𝟑
𝟑 𝟒
𝟒 𝟓

𝑨 𝑩
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Functions Types
 If function is both one-to-one and onto then the function is called Bijection function.
 Example:
function
where and

𝑨 𝐁
1 1
2 4

3 9

4 16

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Vectors and Matrices
 A vector, , means a list (or -tuple) of numbers:

Whereare called the components of .

If all the are zero, then is called the zero vector.
 Vector operations : Addition, Subtraction, Scalar Multiplication
 Matrix A, means a rectangular array of numbers.
 3x3 Matrix
 Matrix operations: Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication

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Linear Inequalities
 Inequalities: The term inequality is applied to any statement involving one of the symbols <,
>, ≤, ≥.
 Examples of inequalities are:
1.

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Linear Equations
 Linear equation with one Unknown

𝒃
𝒂𝒙=𝒃 Solution 𝒙=
𝒂

 Two Equations with Two Unknowns

 A system of two linear equations in the two unknowns and is

 The solution of above can be obtained by the elimination process, whereby reduce the system to a single
equation in only one unknown.

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Logic
 Declarative statement that is sufficiently objective, meaningful and precise to have a truth
value (true or false) is known as proposition.
 Proposition examples:
1. : Fourteen is an even integer.
2. : Mumbai is the capital city of India.
3. :0=0
 Following statements are not propositions.
1. Close the door.
2. Where are you?
3. is greater than .

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Logical Connectives
 Conjunction (): The logical  Disjunction (V): The  Negation (): , the
connective Conjunction logical disjunction, or negation of a proposition ,
(logical AND) is true only logical OR, is true if one or is also a proposition.
when both of the propositions both of the propositions are 
are true. true. Example:
: John studies.
 Example:  Example:
: John does NOT
: It is raining study.
: It is cold  Truth table
: It is raining AND it is cold
 Truth table =  Truth table = V
𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝐹𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑒
𝐹𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑒 𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝐹𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑒 𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒
𝐹𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑒 𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒
𝐹𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑒 𝐹𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑒
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Logical Quantifiers
 Universal Quantifier (denoted as for all): is the preposition, if gives expected result for all
values of in the universe of discourse then the universal quantification of is denoted by,
 Examples:
 for all values of is true

 In order to prove that a universal quantification is false, it must be shown to be false for only
ONE case.
 In order to prove that a universal quantification is true, it must be shown true for ALL cases.

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Logical Quantifiers
 Existential Quantifier (denoted as for some): is the preposition, if there exits an element in
the universe of discourse such that is giving expected result then the Existential
Quantification of is represented by,
 Example:
 Let
There exists a numerical value for which is true
Thus, is true
 In order to show an existential quantification is true, it must be shown true for only ONE
value.
 In order to show an existential quantification is false, it must be show false for ALL values.

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GTU Questions
1. Define the term: Quantifier
2. Define the term: Algorithm
3. What is vector? Which operations are performed on vector?
4. List types of algorithms.
5. Discuss key characteristics of algorithm.
6. Explain Equivalence Relation with example.

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