TRAFFIC ENGINEERING

TRAFFIC FLOW CHARACTERISTICS

 Acknowledgement

Many photographs, pictures and illustrations are taken from Google sources
My sincere acknowledgement to all the associated sources for these contents

References

1. Traffic Engineering and Transport Planning, L R Kadiyali, Khanna Publishers

2. Khanna, S.K., Justo C.E.G. and A. Veeraragavan, Highway Engineering, Nem Chand & Bros., 10 th edition,
2018.
3. Indian Highway Capacity Manual (Indo-HCM), CSIR-CRRI, New Delhi, 2017.
4. Highway Capacity Manual, Sixth Edition: A Guide for Multimodal Mobility Analysis, (HCM 2016),
Transportation Research Board of the National Academies of Science, USA.

2
Dr. Neethu Roy, MBCET 2
Major sections in study of Traffic Engineering

1. Traffic characteristics
2. Traffic studies and analysis
3. Traffic operations – control and regulation
4. Planning and analysis
5. Geometric design
6. Administration and management
 CEE 320
Winter 2006

Traffic Studies

safe
Traffic Flow Characteristics
• Flow
• Speed
• Density
https://slidetodoc.com/cee-320-winter-2006-traffic-concepts-cee-320/
Derived characteristics

From the fundamental traffic flow characteristics like flow, density,

and speed, a few other parameters of traffic flow can be derived.

Significant among them are the time headway, space headway.

https://www.slideshare.net/hronaldo10/lec-10-traffic-stream-models-
transportation-engineering-drlina-shbeeb
https://www.slideshare.net/hronaldo10/lec-10-traffic-stream-models-
transportation-engineering-drlina-shbeeb
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=E_tk6BGhYDE
 RELATION BETWEEN SPEED, DENSITY AND VOLUME
𝑞
𝑉=
𝐾
𝑞=𝐾𝑉

V = VS = Space-mean speed of vehicles in a unit roadway length, kmph

q = average volume of vehicles passing a point during a specified period of
time, vehicles/hour
K = average density or number of vehicels occupying a unit length of
roadway at a given instant, vehicles/km

CE1U20F : Transportation Engineering 45

 RELATION BETWEEN SPEED, DENSITY AND VOLUME

• The maximum speed in the V-q-K diagrams is

called FREE MEAN SPEED, Vsf
• The maximum density at zero speed is called
JAM DENSITY, Kj
• The maximum flow or the capacity flow (qmax or
qc) occurs when speed is Vsf/2 and density is
Kj/2

𝑉 𝑠𝑓 𝐾 𝑗
𝑞𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
4

CE1U20F : Transportation Engineering 46

RELATION BETWEEN SPEED, DENSITY AND VOLUME

The free mean speed on a roadway is found to be 80 kmph. Under stopped

condition the average spacing between vehicles is 6.9 m. Determine the capacity
flow.
 NUMERICAL PROBLEMS
29.1 The free mean speed on a roadway is found to be 80 kmph. Under stopped condition
the average spacing between vehicles is 6.9 m. Determine the capacity flow.

CE1U20F : Transportation Engineering 48

TRAFFIC STUDIES
1. Traffic volume studies
2. Spot speed studies
3. Speed and delay studies
4. Origin and Destination (O&D) studies
5. Parking studies
6. Accident studies

Traffic studies are :

The process of collecting traffic data
• To analyse traffic characteristics and their movement
• Used for the design of geometric features and traffic control
measures for efficient traffic movement
• To assess the need of proposed road projects

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 TRAFFIC VOLUME or FLOW
TRAFFIC VOLUME or FLOW : Number of vehicles that pass across
a given transverse line of the road during unit time.
Expressed as Number of vehicles per hour or per day, per traffic lane.

Classified volume count (different vehicle classes like buses, trucks,

two-wheelers, HCV, LCV etc.)

The different class of vehicles can then be

converted to Equivalent Passenger Car Units
(PCUs) for the analysis and design of traffic
systems

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 OBJECTIVES OF TRAFFIC VOLUME STUDIES
• To decide the priority for improvement and up-gradation of roads
• For geometric design or re-design of roadway facilities
• For structural design/ strengthening of pavements
• For analysis of traffic patterns, trends and rate of growth of each vehicle
class and projecting future traffic volume along identified roads
• For computing roadway capacity
• To plan traffic operation and control of existing facilities
• For planning one-way streets and other regulatory measures
• To plan and design new facilities
• Turning movement studies at intersection; for introducing traffic control
devices, design or re-design of the signal timings or for up-gradation of the
intersection itself
• At intersection, to assess the need for new grade separated facilities

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• Mainly the volume study establishes the importance of a
particular route with respect to the other routes, the
distribution of traffic on road, and the fluctuations in flow.

• All which eventually determines the design of a highway and

the related facilities.

• Thus, volume is treated as the most important of all the

parameters of traffic stream.
Types of volume measurements- Since there is considerable variation in the
volume of traffic, several types of measurements of volume are commonly adopted
which will average these variations into a single volume count to be used in many
design purposes.

1.Average Annual Daily Traffic(AADT) : The average 24-hour traffic volume at a

given location over a full 365-day year, i.e. the total number of vehicles passing the
site in a year divided by 365.

2.Average Annual Weekday Traffic(AAWT) : The average 24-hour traffic volume

occurring on weekdays over a full year. It is computed by dividing the total weekday
traffic volume for the year by 260.

3.Average Daily Traffic(ADT) : An average 24-hour traffic volume at a given

location for some period of time less than a year. It may be measured for six months,
a season, a month, a week, or as little as two days. An ADT is a valid number only
for the period over which it was measured.
4. Average Weekday Traffic(AWT) : An average 24-hour traffic volume
occurring on weekdays for some period of time less than one year, such
as for a month or a season.
 METHODS FOR TRAFFIC VOLUME COUNTS
(i) Manual Methods
(ii) Combination of Manual and Mechanical Methods
(iii) Automatic Devices
(iv) Photographic Method

Information collected
• Volume and direction of traffic
• Directional movements of vehicles can be noted separately
• Hourly, daily, yearly and seasonal traffic volume variations
• Peak and off-peak period
• Proportion of all classes of vehicles at a particular time
• Variation of flow at different parts of a road system

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MANUAL COUNTS
• Field team of enumerators do classified count of vehicles at pre-
determined locations
• Entered in record sheets/forms at desired time intervals
• It is difficult to do manual count of all vehicle classes at all the 24 hours
of the day, on all days of a year
• Statistical sampling and resort to short counts
• Enter number by a five-dash system

MANUAL + MECHANICAL METHOD

• A multibank hand tally counter
• Multiple pen recorder

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Dept. of Civil Engineering, MBCET 58
 AUTOMATIC DEVICES : SENSORS/DETECTORS

Pneumatic tube:
• Flexible tube with one end sealed is clamped to the road surface
• Other end connected to a diaphragm actuated switch
• When an axle of a vehicle crosses the tube, pressure is created which
closes the electrical contact through the switch
• Two contacts result in one count being registered
• Difficulty in identifying multi-axle vehicles
• Cheap
• May get damaged by tyre chains, crawler tractors etc
Electric contact:
• Pair of steel strips are contained in a rubber pad which is buried beneath
the surface
• On being pressed by a wheel axle, steel strips come into contact with
each other and cause electric current
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 AUTOMATIC DEVICES : SENSORS/DETECTORS
Co-axial cable:
• Co-axial cable is clamped across the road surface
• Generate signals with the passage of axles and it actuate a transistorized
counter
• Less susceptible to damage
Photo-electric sensor:
• On one end of road is a source of light and other end is a photo-cell which
distinguish between the light beam and the absence of the light beam
• Drawback is that if the beam is obstructed by pedestrians or by more than
one vehicle, it will register only one vehicle
Radar:
• Works on Doppler effect
• Detects moving vehicles
• Frequency of signal received back from a moving object will be different
from the frequency of the signal from the source
• Expensive

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 AUTOMATIC DEVICES : SENSORS/DETECTORS
Infra-red and Ultrasonic:
• Detect heat radiations from a vehicle or detect the reflections of radiations
emitted from a source
Magnetic:
• Detects disturbances caused in a magnetic field by a passing vehicle

VIDEO PHOTOGRAPHY
• Video photography gives a permanent record of volume counts.
• Analysis can be done by manual or using image processing techniques

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Dr. Neethu Roy, MBCET 62
SPOT SPEED, SPEED AND DELAY
STUDIES

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 Terminologies
Spot Speed : Instantaneous speed of a vehicle at a specified location

Running Speed: Average speed maintained by a vehicle over a given course while the vehicle
is in motion
Running Speed = (Length of course/Running time)

Journey Speed: Effective speed of a vehicle between two points

Journey Speed = (Distance/ Total journey time including
delays)

Time-mean Speed: Average of speed measurements at one point in space over a period of
time. Average of spot speed measurements

Space-mean Speed : Average of speed measurements at an instant of time over a space

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Use of Spot Speed Studies
• For geometric design of roads
• For regulation and control of traffic operations
• Design of traffic signal
• Analyzing causes of accidents and identifying the relation of speed with
accidents
• Before-and-after studies of road improvement schemes
• Determining problems of congestion on roads and relating capacity with
speeds
Use of Journey Speed and Delay Studies
• Cost of journey depends on speed, so for economic analysis
• To evaluate congestion, capacity, level of service and need for
improvements in road network
• In transportation planning, travel time is needed for trip assignment
• Before-and-after studies for assessing the effectiveness of improvement
measures
• Delay studies at intersections provide data for design of traffic control
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SPOT SPEED MEASUREMENT

Time taken to
Photographic
cover a known Radar Speedmeter
method
distance

Long-base method Avg. speed of Base length

• Direct timing Procedure traffic (kmph) (m)
• Enoscope < 40 27
• Pressure contact tubes 40 to 65 54
>65 81

Short-base method Base length – 2m

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Direct Timing Procedure
• Two reference points are marked at a suitable distance apart
• Observer starts and stops stop-watch as a vehicle crosses these two
marks
• From known distance and the time, speed is calculated
• Disadvantage : error due to parallax effect

• Two observer method: first observer at the first point signals the
second observer to start the stop watch. He stops it when the
vehicle passes his point (second point).
• Involves reaction time of two observers
d

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ENOSCOPE
• Eliminates parallax effect
• L-shaped mirror box, open at both ends and a mirror set at 45o angle

• Enoscope is placed directly opposite to the first reference point and

observer stations at the other reference point
• As vehicle passes the first point, it can be seen through the
enoscope and the stop watch can be started
• Two enoscopes can be used and the observer stands at midway
between the two reference points
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PRESSURE CONTACT TUBES
• Detectors are used to indicate the time of entering and leaving the base length
• When vehicle passes the first tube (at first reference point), an air impulse is
sent, which activates an electromagnetically controlled stop-watch in the hands
of the observer
• When vehicle passes the next tube, the watch stops.
• Time is noted by the observer
• Disadvantage is that tubes are seen by drivers and it affects their behaviour

• Base-length is short, say 2m

SHORT-BASE METHOD
• Electronic instruments are used in conjunction with pneumatic tubes or electric
detectors laid on road
• Recording can be manual

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RADAR SPEEDMETERS
• Doppler effect : Speed of a moving vehicle is proportional to the change in
frequency between the radio wave transmitted to the moving body and the radio
wave received back
• Can measure upto accuracy of 1.5 to 3.0 kmph
• Battery operated and portable
• Instrument is set up near the edge of the carriageway at a height of about 1m,
above ground level
• Angle between direction of travel of vehicle and axis of transmission of wave is
as low as possible (within 20o)
PHOTOGRAPHIC METHOD & VIDEO CAMERA
•METHOD
Time-lapse camera photography
• Photographs are taken at fixed intervals of time
• By projecting the film on a screen, the passage of a vehicle can be traced with
reference to time
• Video images can be analysed
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 PRESENTATION OF SPOT SPEED DATA
• Speed distribution table
• Frequency distribution diagram of spot speeds
• Cumulative Speed distribution diagram

Speed Distribution Table

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 PRESENTATION OF SPOT SPEED DATA
• Frequency distribution diagram of spot speeds

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• Cumulative Speed distribution

98

74 km/h

98th or 95th percentile speed: speed below which 98% of the vehicles travel. It is used as
design speed in geometric design
85th percentile speed: the speed below which 85% of the vehicles are travelling. Used for
determining speed limits for traffic regulation
50th percentile speed: median speed, the speed at which there are as many vehicles going
faster as they are going slower
15th percentile speed : lower speed limit on major highway facilities such as Expressways
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RUNNING SPEED AND JOURNEY
SPEED

DELAY STUDIES

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 SPEED AND DELAY STUDIES

1. Floating Car Method/ Moving Observer Method

2. License plate or vehicle number method
3. Interview technique
4. Elevated observations
5. Photographic techniques

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 Floating Car Method/Moving Observer Method
• A test vehicle is driven over a given route at approx. average speed
of the stream, trying to ‘float’ with the traffic stream
• A number of test runs are made, with the stream and against the
stream
• Group of observers in the vehicle make the observations

• Observer 1 – record time of arrival at various control points like

intersections, bridges etc using one timer and duration of
individual delays using second timer (in each test run)
• Observer2 – time, location and cause of delays in a tabular form or
by voice recording
• Observer 3 – Number of vehicles overtaking the test vehicle and
the number overtaken by the test vehicles
• Observer 4 – number of vehicles travelling in the opposite
direction
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Floating Car Method/Moving Observer Method

• Similarly for south bound direction

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Floating Car Method/Moving Observer Method

- Mean journey time in north bound direction

- Journey time when the test car travelled in north bound direction
- Flow in the north bound direction
- opposing traffic count of vehicles met when the test car was travelling south
- number of vehicles overtaking the test car minus the number overtaken by the
test car, when the test car is travelling north

- journey time when test car travelled in sound bound direction

- length of the test section

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License plate or vehicle number method
• Synchronized stop watches/timers or voice recording equipment are
used
• Observers stationed at the entrance and exit of the test stretch
• Timings and vehicle numbers are noted by the observers of the
selected sample of vehicles in the stream
• From office computations, travel time of each vehicle can be
determined

• Cannot get cause of delay, number and duration of delays

• Office work for data analysis is cumbersome

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Interview Technique
• Interview and collect details
• Can be done in short duration
• But assessment of drivers will be subjective

Elevated Observation and Photographic technique

• Observers with timers are located at an elevated observation point,
from where movement of most vehicles can be seen (in the test
stretch)
• Photo/Video can be taken
• Useful for studying speed and delay characteristics on short test
stretches or on intersection areas

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ORIGIN AND DESTINATION
STUDIES

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ORIGIN AND DESTINATION STUDIES

Origin is the place where the trip begins and destination is the
place where the trip ends.

• OD study is done to know the exact origin and destination of

trips
• Also, to know how many trips are made from one origin zone to
another zone.
• To know the Land-use of the zones (whether residential,
commercial, business, recreational etc.)
• Household characteristics of the trip-making family, time of the
day when the journeys are made, trip purpose and mode of
travel (whether public or private)

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 ORIGIN AND DESTINATION STUDIES

Applications of O-D data:

• To judge the adequacy of existing routes and to plan new network
of roads
• To locate new bridges as per traffic demand
• To locate expressways or major routes along desire lines
• To establish preferential routes for various categories of vehicles
including by-pass
• To establish design standards for road, bridges, culverts etc. along
the route
• To plan mass transit facilities in the cities
• To locate terminals and to plan terminal facilities
• To locate intermediate stops for public transport

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 ORIGIN AND DESTINATION STUDIES

1. Road-side interview method

2. License plate method
3. Return post card method
4. Tag-on-car method
5. Home interview method
6. Work place interview method
7. Cell phone tracking (GPS method)
8. Online Survey

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 Road-side interview method
• Vehicles stopped at interview stations
• place and time of origin and destination, route, location of intermediate
stoppages, purpose of trip, vehicle type, number of passengers, cargo
transported etc
• Selected sample
• Can be done in short duration and training of enumerators is simple
• Resentment from road users due to delay, undue congestion due to
stopped vehicle etc.
License plate method
• Area is cordoned out
• Enumerators stationed at all entry and exit locations and at intermediate
locations
• Note license plate numbers and time
• By analysing the data, each vehicle is tracked and time of entering and
leaving the cordoned area is noted.
• Lot of computations, large team is required, details such as frequency of
trips, purpose etc can’t be obtained
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 Return post card method
• Pre-paid business reply post cards with return address distributed to the
road users at selected point along the route or cards mailed to the owners
of vehicles
• Purpose is also noted in the card
• Distribution done at toll booths, signals etc where vehicle stops
• Suitable for heavy traffic
• Less personnel is needed
• Prompt reply may not be received and details may not be correct

Tag-on- Car method

• Pre-coded card is stuck on the vehicle as it enters the area under study
• When the car leaves the cordon area, other observations are recorded on
the tag
• Useful for heavy traffic; need not stop vehicles for long
• Only points of entry and exit and time of travel is obtained.

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 Home Interview method
• For comprehensive traffic and transportation studies
• Sample – 0.5 to 10% of population selected based on number of
residences
• Visit by trained personal and collect travel data from each member of the
house hold
• Other socio-economic details can also be collected

Work spot interview method

• Transportation needs of work trips can be planned by collecting the O-D
data at work places.
GPS tracking
• For limited samples only
• Purpose of trip cannot be obtained

Online Surveys

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 Presentation of O&D Data
1) O & D tables showing number of trips
between different zones

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 Presentation of O&D Data
2) Desire Lines
Straight lines
connecting the origin
points with
destinations

Width of the lines is

drawn proportion to
the number of trips in
both directions

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Questions
1. List the various traffic engineering studies. Mention the objectives and
importance of each study
2. Explain the term traffic volume. Enumerate the different methods of
carrying out traffic volume studies, indicating the principles of each.
3. Illustrate how the traffic volume data are presented and the result interpreted
for use in traffic engineering design.
4. Explain spot speed, running speed, space-mean speed, time mean speed and
average speed.
5. How are spot speed studies carried out?
6. Explain how speed and delay studies are carried out. What are the various
uses of speed and delay studies?
7. Explain origin and destination study. What are the various uses of OD
studies?
8. Explain the various methods of conducting OD studies.
9. Explain how OD study data are represented and interpreted.

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 PARKING STUDIES

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 PARKING STUDIES - Terminologies
Parking accumulation: Total number of vehicles parked in an area at a specified
moment

Parking volume: Number of vehicles parking in a particular area over a given period
of time
Parking load: Area under the parking accumulation curve (vehicle-hour)
Parking duration: Length of time spent in a parking space

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PARKING STUDIES
Parking index: Percentage of parking bays actually occupied by parked vehicles as
compared to the theoretical number available
=

Parking turn-over : Rate of usage of the available parking space.

If there were 10 parking spaces used by 100 vehicles in a period of say 12 hours,
Parking turnover = 100/10 vehicles per space in 12 hours

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 PARKING SURVEYS

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 TYPES OF PARKING SURVEYS
i) Parking space inventory
ii) Parking usage survey by patrol
iii) Questionnaire type parking usage survey
iv) Cordon count
NEED FOR PARKING STUDIES
• Parking is one of the serious problems that confront the urban
planner and the traffic engineer
• Before taking any measures for improving the conditions, following
are to be studied:
• availability of parking space
• Extent of usage
• Parking demand
• If is proposed to implement a parking system, then pricing policies
on parking and its effect is to be studied
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 Parking Space Inventory
• Collect data on the amount, type and location of space actually available for
parking in an area
• Area to be surveyed is first delineated
• Survey area is then subdivided on a street-by-street basis and the sub-divisions are
marked on a map.
• Sketch plans are prepared
• Following are recorded on the plan using suitable symbols
− total length of kerb, waiting restrictions
− number of parking spaces provided in the street
− street width
− location of bus stops, buy bays, pedestrian crossings, taxi stands etc.
− Traffic management measures in force
− number and type of traffic signs for parking regulation
− private streets
− vacant or unused land suitable for temporary or permanent parking space

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Parking Space Inventory

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 Parking Usage Survey by Patrol
• Obtain data on the extent of usage of parking spaces
• Survey includes counts of parked vehicles at regular intervals through a period,
covering both the morning and evening peak period, parking accumulation and
turn-over
• Can be done for on-street or off-street parking

Step 1
Mapping the street system – prepare
a map of the street system showing
its sub-division into sections and
marking the junctions

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Parking Usage Survey by Patrol (Contd…)
 Observations of register number of vehicles parked can be done by patrols by
foot or from a slowing moving car (if parking is very low)
 Observations can be made separately for each side of the road
 Speed of walking of patrol man - 900 m in half an hour
 Survey is done on a week day and usually for 10 to 12 hours
 Frequency of patrol can be ½ an hour to one hour (or more frequent surveys to
avoid short term parkers)
 Registration numbers of parked vehicles are entered in a form during every
survey period.

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Analysis of Parking Usage Survey

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Analysis of Parking Usage Survey

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Analysis of Parking Usage Survey

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 Questionnaire Type Parking Usage Survey
• Interviews with drivers who use parking facilities
• To collect information on
• the extent to which the existing facilities are being used
• the parking requirements at the prices existing at the time of the
survey,
• the parking demand at different prices
• the distribution demand over area,
• time and journey purposes of car parkers

• Survey can be done by making enquiries among the car owners living in
the vicinity
OR
• by making enquiries among the drivers seen parked in the area (will miss
the potential parkers who never bring cars to the survey area for want of
space)
• Survey for 8 to 10 hours
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 Questionnaire Type Parking Usage Survey
Information collected by interview of actual parkers
i) Address of origin of the trip
ii) Address of destination of the trip
iii) Trip purpose
iv) Time of arrival at the parking place
v) Time of departure from the parking place
vi) Type of parking space used
vii) Type of vehicle

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 Cordon Count
• Area to be surveyed is demarcated by a cordon line which is crossed by
the roads emanating from the area
• Counting stations are established at these crossing points
• A count is made of all the vehicles entering and leaving the area
• Difference between the two traffic gives the number of vehicles parked or
in motion in the area

Photographic Method
• Time-lapse photography from fixed position on the ground
• Video system

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ACCIDENT STUDIES

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 Objectives of Accident Studies

• To study the cause of accidents and to suggest corrective treatment at potential

locations
• To evaluate existing design, regulation and control measures
• To support proposed changes in design, regulation and control measures in the
selected zone
• To carry out “before and after studies” after implementing changes and to
demonstrate the improvement in the accident problem
• To made computations of financial losses due to accidents
• To provide economic justification for the improvement measures suggested by
the traffic engineer

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 ACCIDENT STUDIES

1. Collection of accident data

2. Preparation of accident reports
3. Preparation of location file
4. Preparation of diagrams showing the type of collision
5. Application of these records for suggesting improvement measures at
the accident prone areas

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 Collection of accident data
a) General data – date, time, persons involved in the accident, whether
fatal, serious, minor injury or property damage etc
b) Location
c) Details of vehicles involved – reg. number, make, loading details,
defects etc.
d) Nature of accident – damages, injuries, condition of vehicles involved
e) Road condition – geometry, surface characteristics
f) Traffic condition – flow, volume, density etc
g) Primary cause of accident
h) Other probably/ secondary causes and contributing causes
i) Accident cost – property damage, personal injuries, casualities

Accident reported to police authorities, who collect further details

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 Accident records
a) Location files : a record of locations where accidents have taken place
within the concerned zone and high accident prone regions. Maintained
at police stations.
b) Spot maps: Accident location spot maps show accidents by spots, pins
or symbols; each symbol representing type of accident (vehicle to
vehicle/ vehicle to pedestrian) and whether fatal or non-fatal
c) Collision diagram : shows details of accident location and show
approximate path of the vehicles and the pedestrians involved in the
accident and also other objects with which the vehicles have collided.
- Useful to compare accident pattern before and after remedial measures
are taken

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Accident records Collision diagram

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 Accident records
d) Condition diagram: drawing of the accident location drawn to scale,
showing all the important physical features of the road and adjoining
area
• width of roadway
• Shoulders
• Median if any
• Curves, kerb lines, bridges, culverts, electric posts, trees
• Obstruction to vision, property lines
• Signs and signals

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Accident records Condition diagram

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 ACCIDENT INVESTIGATIONS
Objective:
To find
i. Whether the drivers involved in the accident were under the influence
of alcohol
ii. Whether the vehicle had exceeded the legal speed limit
iii. Whether there was any defect in the vehicle or the brake had failed
iv. Whether the brakes were applied but the vehicle skidded due to
slippery surface at the prevailing pavement condition

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Questions
1. Define parking accumulation, parking load, parking volume, parking
index, parking turn-over.
2. Explain the different parking survey methods in detail.
3. What are the objectives of accident studies?
4. Explain how accident data are recorded.
5. What is a condition diagram and a collision diagram.

Thank You!

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 TRAFFIC FLOW CHARACTERISTICS
Basic traffic manoeuvres
Diverging
• a vehicle travelling along the main stream opts to diverge or
move out of this stream to an adjacent traffic lane or to a side
road
• Diverge to the left or to the right side of the main traffic stream

Merging
• When a vehicle travelling along an adjoining lane or roadway
desires to enter the main traffic stream by looking for an
opportunity of sufficient gap between the vehicles of the main
stream
• Either merge from the left or from the right
• Conflict with vehicles of the main stream and/or conflict with
the oncoming vehicles

CE1U20F : Transportation Engineering 116

 BASIC TRAFFIC MANOEUVRES
Crossing
• Crossing at an at-grade intersection (intersection at the same
level) is of great concern
• Possibilities of conflicts or collision

Weaving
• When a vehicle moves obliquely across the path of another
vehicles moving in the same direction at relatively small angle
of crossing, its called weaving
• Could be for lane change or for merging/diverging

Queuing
Vehicles queuing behind one another with some space headway
between them.

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 PASSENGER CAR UNIT

CET206: Transportation Engineering 118

 MIXED TRAFFIC FLOW
• Traffic with different classes of vehicles such as cars, vans, buses, trucks, auto rickshaws,
motor cycles, pedal cycles, bullock carts etc. using a common roadway facility without
segregation.
• This is highly “heterogeneous”
• The different vehicles have different static characteristics as well as different dynamic
characteristics
• Also the driver behavior of these vehicles are different
• So mixed traffic flow characteristics are very complex when compared to a traffic having
passenger cars only

• To convert the different classes to one equivalent class, Passenger Car is used as the
Standard Vehicle
• This unit is called Passenger Car Unit (PCU)

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 PASSENGER CAR UNIT

CONCEPT OF PCU VALUE

• PCU is the relative space requirement of a vehicle class compared to that of a
passenger car under a specified set of roadway, traffic and other conditions.
• If the addition of one vehicle of a particular class in the traffic stream produces the
same effect as that due to the addition of one passenger car, then that vehicle class is
considered equivalent to a passenger car with a PCU value of 1.0
• The PCU value of a particular vehicle class may be considered as the ratio of the
capacity of a roadway when there are passenger cars only to the capacity of the same
roadway when there are vehicles of that class only.

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 Factors Affecting PCU Values
PCU values of different vehicle classes depend upon several factors:
a) Dimensions of vehicles
b) Dynamic characteristics such as power, speed, acceleration and braking
c) Transverse and longitudinal clearances (or gaps) between moving vehicles which
depends on speed, driver characteristics and the vehicle classes at the adjoining
spaces.
d) Traffic stream characteristics such as classes of vehicles, mean speed and speed
distribution of the mixed traffic stream and volume to capacity ratio
e) Road way geometrics including gradient, curves, access controls, type of road (Rural
or urban), presence of intersections and type of intersection.
f) Regulation and control of traffic such as speed limit, one way traffic, presence of
traffic control devices etc.
g) Environment and climatic conditions.

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 Recommended PCU Values

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 Recommended PCU Values

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 Recommended PCU Values

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 HIGHWAY CAPACITY AND LEVEL OF SERVICE

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 HIGHWAY CAPACITY
• Traffic Volume or Traffic Flow – number of vehicles moving in a specified direction on a given
lane that pass a given point or cross section during specified unit of time
(Unit is vehicles per hour)
• Mixed traffic can be converted to equivalent number of passenger cars and traffic volume
can be expressed as Passenger Car Units/hour (PCUs/hour).

• Highway capacity is the ability of a roadway or the traffic lane to allow maximum traffic flow
per unit time.

• Highway Capacity is defined as the maximum hourly rate at which persons or vehicles can
reasonably be expected to traverse a point or uniform section of a lane or roadway during a
given time period under prevailing roadway, traffic and control conditions.

• Time period – usually an hour

• Unit – Passenger Car Units per hour (PCU/hr)

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 HIGHWAY CAPACITY
BASIC CAPACITY OR THEORETICAL CAPACITY
Maximum number of passenger cars that can pass a point on a lane or roadway during
one hour, under the most nearly ideal roadway and traffic conditions which can possibly
be attained.

POSSIBLE CAPACITY
The maximum number of vehicles that can pass a given point on a lane or roadway during
one hour, under prevailing roadway and traffic conditions.
In worst case, during traffic congestion, possible capacity may approach Zero.

PRACTICAL CAPACITY/ DESIGN CAPACITY

The maximum number of vehicles that can pass a given point on a lane or roadway during
one hour, without the traffic density being so great as to cause unreasonable delay,
hazard or restriction to the driver’s freedom to manoeuvre under prevailing roadway and
traffic conditions.

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 Applications of “Capacity” in Transportation Studies
i. Design of a highway facility is possible only when capacity is related to the projected
requirements of traffic.
Design features governed by capacity are
• highway type
• number of lanes
• width of lanes
• intersections and weaving sections

ii. In transportation planning studies, the present traffic volume can be compared with the
capacity of existing highway networks to find their adequacy or deficiency.
iii. Improvements and changes in the geometric features, junction features, traffic control
devices and traffic management measures can be planned effectively if capacity studies
are considered.

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 Determination of theoretical maximum capacity

– capacity of a single lane, vehicles per hour per lane

V – speed in kmph
S – average centre to centre spacing of vehicles, when they follow one behind the other
as a queue or Space Headway, m
H – the minimum time headway, seconds

Capacity depends on
• Speed, V
• Spacing, S [it is average length of vehicle + average clear gap]
= space headway

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 FACTORS AFFECTING PRACTICAL CAPACITY
a) Lane Width
As lane width decreases, capacity also decreases.
b) Lateral clearance
Vertical obstructions like retaining walls, parked vehicles etc near traffic lane reduces the
effective width of a lane and further reduces the capacity
A minimum clearance of 1.85 m from the pavement edge to the obstruction is considered
desirable.
c) Width of shoulders
Narrow shoulders reduce the effective width of adjacent traffic lanes as the vehicles travel
toward the centre of the pavement.
d) Commercial vehicles
Large commercial vehicles such as truck and buses occupy greater space and influence other
traffic in the same lane as well as the vehicles along the adjoining lanes. Also the heavy
commercial vehicles may travel at lower speeds. Contd…
CET206: Transportation Engineering 130
 FACTORS AFFECTING PRACTICAL CAPACITY
e) Alignment
If the alignment and geometrics are not up to the desired standards, the capacity will
decrease. Restrictions to sight distance, steep and long grades etc can affect capacity.
f) Road Geometrics
Presence of sharp horizontal curves, steep gradients, summit and valley curves etc.
necessitate speed changes and result in lower highway capacity
g) Presence of intersections at grade
Intersections restrict free flow of traffic and thus adversely affect the capacity.
At signalized intersections, vehicles have to stop and allow crossing traffic, then the capacity
is further decreased.
h) Other factors
Stream speed, one or two way traffic movements, number of traffic lanes, vehicular and
driver characteristics, composition of traffic and the traffic volume.

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 LEVEL OF SERVICE
• Level-of-Service(LOS) of a traffic facility is a concept introduced to relate the quality of traffic
service to a given flow rate.
• Level-of-Service is introduced by Highway Capacity Manual (HCM by transportation research
board of USA) to denote the level of quality one can derive from a road under different
operation characteristics and traffic volume.
• HCM proposes LOS as a letter that designate a range of operating conditions on a particular
type of facility.
• Six LOS letters are defined by HCM (as well as IRC), namely A, B, C, D, E, and F, where A
denote the best quality of service and F denote the worst.
• These definitions are based on Measures of Effectiveness (MoE) of that facility such as
speed, travel-time, density, delay etc. There will be an associated service volume for each of
the LOS levels.

CET206: Transportation Engineering 132

 LEVEL OF SERVICE

• LOS “A” – V/C is very low that most

vehicles have opportunities to travel at
free speeds and could overtake slow
moving vehicles at their will.

• With increase in the volume (or V/C)

operating speeds decrease and the
LOS starts decreasing to B, C, D and E

• Further increase in vehicles will cause

congestion and a forced flow condition;
LOS “F” is reached and “Stop and Go”
conditions take place, further leading
to no flow when jam density is reached.

• Highway facilities should be designed

for high levels of services such as B or
C.

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 LEVEL OF SERVICE

CET206: Transportation Engineering 141

Illustration of LoS and SF rates

A B C D E F

SFA SFB SFC SFD SFE

ROAD INTERSECTIONS
• Intersection is where two or more roads join or cross.
• At the intersection there are through, turning and crossing traffic.
• The traffic movements may be handled in different ways, depending
on the type of intersection and its design.
• The operating efficiency of a highway and the safety there-of depend
on the number and types of intersections en-route and the efficiency
of the design of these intersections.
• Pedestrian movement at intersection cause increased potential
hazards and delays.

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Dept. of Civil Engineering, MBCET
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 N

• Different movements
• Conflicting and non-conflicting
• Non-conflicting movements can be grouped together and given
right of way together (Phase)
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Conflict Points at an Intersection

W E

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ROAD INTERSECTIONS

Intersection at-grade Un-channelized

All roads which meet at
more or less the same Channelized
level
Rotary Intersection

Intersection Signalized Intersection

Grade separated
intersection Taking one of the roads
(say, major) above the cross
Intersecting roads are road by an over-pass or
separated by difference flyover or below the cross
in level, thus eliminating road by an under-pass
crossing manoeuvres

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Traffic Islands
Raised areas constructed within the roadway to establish physical channels
through which the vehicular traffic may be guided.
i) Divisional islands
Provided to separate opposing flow of traffic on a highway with four or
more lanes
ii) Channelizing islands
Provided to guide the traffic into proper channel through the intersection
area
iii) Pedestrian loading and refuge islands
Provided at regular bus stops and similar places for the protection of
passengers.
iv) Rotary islands
Large central island of a rotary intersection

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Traffic Islands

Divisional Islands Channelizing Islands

Pedestrian Refuge islands Rotary islands

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 INTERSECTIONS AT-GRADE
Also called ‘at-grade intersections’, all the areas/legs of the intersection join or cross at the
same level. The basic traffic manoeuvres such as diverging, merging and crossing are used in
at-grade intersections.

IRC-SP 41:-Guidelines for

the Design of At-grade
Intersections in Rural and
Urban areas

Basic forms of at-grade intersections

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 Requirements of Intersections At-grade

• At the intersection the area of conflict should be as small as possible.

• The relative speed should be small.
• Adequate visibility should be available for vehicles approaching the
intersection.
• Sudden change of path should be avoided.
• Geometric features like turning radius and width of pavement should be
adequately provided.
• Proper signs should be provided on the road approaching intersection to warn
the drivers.
• If the number of pedestrians and cyclists are large, separate provision should
be made for the safe passage at intersections with high volume of fast
moving traffic.
• Good lighting at night is desirable.

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 Channelization at intersections

Channelization means “directing the traffic flow at intersections to specified

paths by means of traffic markings, traffic islands, or such traffic control aids”

An intersection that is channelised to direct traffic into definite paths by

markings and islands is referred to as a channelized intersection.

Evidently, an intersection that is not treated in this manner and left in its bare
form is said to be un-channelized.

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 Un-channelized Intersection
• Entire intersection area is paved and there is no restriction to the vehicles INTERSECTIONS AT-GRADE
to use any part of the intersection area i) Un-channelized intersection
• Lowest class of intersection, easiest to construct ii) Channelized intersection
• But most complex in traffic operations resulting in large number of iii) Rotary intersection
iv) Signalized intersection
conflict area
• More number of accidents, unless controlled by police
• Adopted only for low volume roads

If the pavement is widened at the intersection area, by a traffic lane or more, it is called flared intersection. If not, it is
called plain intersection.

156
 Channelized Intersection
INTERSECTIONS AT-GRADE
• Islands are provided to channelize the traffic flow into appropriate streams i) Un-channelized intersection
• Channelizing islands reduce the total conflict area ii) Channelized intersection
iii) Rotary intersection
• Size and shape of the channelizing islands are so designed as to control and iv) Signalized intersection
regulate the approach angle and the relative speed of vehicles.

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 Objectives of Channelization /Advantages of Channelized Intersections
i. Reducing the number of possible vehicle conflicts and areas of
conflicts in the carriageway, and presenting the drivers with only one
option at a time.
ii. Controlling the angles of crossing such that acute crossings, which
are hazardous, are avoided.

iii. Reducing the approach speeds of vehicles at the intersection and increasing the exit speeds from the
intersection.
iv. Providing separate storage pockets for right turning traffic at the time of leaving or crossing the main
traffic flow.
v. Providing a channelising island to serve as a refuge and as a protection for pedestrians crossing the
intersection.
vi. Reduction of large paved areas in order to control the driver’s tendency to make hazardous
movements.
vii. Making prohibited movements impossible or at least inconvenient.
viii. Providing space for erection of traffic control devices such as direction signs and other informatory
signs.
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 INTERSECTIONS AT-GRADE
i) Un-channelized intersection
ii) Channelized intersection
Rotary Intersection iii) Rotary intersection
iv) Signalized intersection

A rotary intersection is an enlarged road intersection where all converging vehicles are forced to move
round a large central island in one direction before they can weave out of traffic flow into their respective
directions radiating from the central island.
In India, with ‘keep to left’ regulation, clock-wise direction of flow around the island is followed.

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Rotary Intersection INTERSECTIONS AT-GRADE
i) Un-channelized intersection
ii) Channelized intersection
iii) Rotary intersection
iv) Signalized intersection

Eliminate the necessity of

stopping.

The crossing is avoided

by WEAVING
MANOEUVRE

(i) Merging manoeuvre

from the left and
diverging out to the
right or

(ii) Merging from the

right and diverging
out to the left

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Rotary Intersection N

W E

S
161
 Advantages of Rotary Intersection
i. Crossing manoeuvre is converted to weaving or merging and diverging operations.
ii. No necessity of any of the vehicles to stop and proceed. Thus the journey is more
consistent and comfortable when compared to other intersections at-grade.
iii. All traffic including those turning right or going straight across the rotary have equal
opportunity as those turning left.
iv. The variable vehicle operation cost of motor vehicles is lower at a rotary than a signalized
intersection.
v. There is no necessity of traffic police or signal to control the traffic as the rotary could
function by itself. Hence the maintenance cost is almost nil.
vi. The possible number of accidents and the severity of accidents are quite low because of
low relative speed. Also, weaving, merging and diverging manoeuvres are easier and less
dangerous than crossing.
vii. Rotaries can be constructed with advantage when the number of intersecting roads is
between four and seven.
viii. When the proportion of right turning traffic exceeds 30% at a four legged intersection, a
rotary is more advantageous than a signalized intersection.
ix. The rotary can effectively handle upto 300 veh/hr entering from all intersection legs. The
capacity is much higher than channelized and un-channelized intersections.

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 Limitations of Rotary Intersection

i. Rotary requires comparatively a large area of land and so where space is limited and costly as in
built up areas, the total cost may be very high.
ii. Where pedestrian traffic is large as in urban areas, the rotary by itself cannot control the traffic and
hence will need grade separated pedestrian crossing. If the traffic has to stop to allow pedestrian to
cross, then the main purpose of rotary is defeated.
iii. In places where there is mixed traffic with large number of cyclists and pedestrians, the design of
rotary will be very complex.
iv. Where the angle of intersection of two roads is too acute or when there are more than seven
intersecting roads, rotaries are unsuitable.
v. When the distance between intersection on an important highway is less, rotaries become
troublesome.
vi. When there are a large number of cycle and animal drawn vehicles, the extra length to be traversed
by crossing and right turning traffic is considered troublesome and there is a tendency to violate the
traffic regulations of clock-wise movement around the central island.
vii. When the traffic volume is very low, construction of a rotary cannot be justified.

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Rotary Intersection

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 INTERSECTIONS AT-GRADE
Signalized Intersection i) Un-channelized intersection
ii) Channelized intersection
• Intersection at-grade controlled by traffic iii) Rotary intersection
iv) Signalized intersection
signals
• Automatic traffic control signals are
operated by electric power
• The crossing conflicts are avoided by ‘time
separation’, ie., by stopping and letting go.

Main objectives of a signal control intersection are to:

(i) Prevent traffic conflicts
(ii) Reduce accidents
(iii)Minimise overall delay
(iv) Economise on the time spend by police personnel on traffic control

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 GRADE-SEPARATED INTERSECTIONS
1. Grade-separated intersections Interchange – facility for movement of traffic
without interchange between roads at different levels in the grade
separated junction
2. Grade-separated intersections
Without interchange – over-bridge or underpass,
with interchange
where traffic at different levels moves without a
provision for an interchange between them

Based on the number of legs

• Three-leg interchange
• Four-leg interchange
• Multi-leg interchange

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 Grade-separated Intersection without Interchange

Overpass/
Over bridge/
flyover

Choice of overpass or
underpass depends on
topography, vertical
alignment, drainage,
economy, aesthetic
features etc. Underpass

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 Over-pass and Under-pass
Advantages of an over-pass or flyover
• Aesthetic for main through traffic and less feeling of restriction or confinement
• Future expansion or construction of separate bridge is possible

Disadvantages of an over-pass
• In rolling terrain, vertical profile will have an undulating grade line
• If major highway is taken over on high embankments by providing steep gradients, there
will be increased grade resistance and speed reduction
• Restrictions to sight distance

Advantages of an under-pass
• Gives a warning to traffic in advance
• Advantageous when the cross road is depressed and taken underneath

Disadvantages of under-pass
• Drainage problems
• Overhead structure may restrict the visibility or sight distance
• Feeling of restriction to the traffic
• No possibility of stage construction

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GRADE-SEPARATED INTERSECTIONS WITH INTERCHANGE
THREE-LEG INTERCHANGE
i) T Interchange
Trumpet Interchange
ii) Y Interchange
iii) Partial rotary interchange

FOUR-LEG INTERCHANGE
iv) Diamond interchange
v) Half Clover Leaf interchange
vi) Clover Leaf Interchange
vii)Rotary Interchange
viii)Directional Interchange

MULTI-LEG INTERCHANGE
ix) Rotary Interchange

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 Interchange Ramps
Transfer of route at the grade separation or the turning facilities are provided by
“Interchange Ramps”.
Ramps may be Direct, Semi-direct or Indirect
No major
conflicts, simple,
Two but distance is
conflicts more

Diverging Diverging Diverging

to right and to left and to left and
merging merging merging
from right from right from left
side side side

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Grade-Separated Intersections with Interchanges

4 legs of direct interchange ramps in Provided at circular junctions where traffic is

4 quadrants of the junctions permitted to flow in one direction around
Central Island and one road is raised above the
rotary intersection to allow grade separation

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 Grade-Separated
Intersections with
Interchanges

Diamond Interchange
Rotar
y

175
 Grade-Separated Intersections with Interchanges
• Eliminates all crossing movement
N conflicts by the use of weaving
sections
• There are two points of entry and
FULL CLOVER exit on each through roadway.
LEAF
• Requires only one bridge.
• Disadv: greater travel distances,
higher operating costs, difficult
merging sections, large areas for
loops, confusion etc.
E
W

176
Grade-Separated Intersections with Interchanges
N • It is a modification
that combines some
PARTIAL elements of a diamond
CLOVER LEAF interchange with one
or PARCLO or more loops of a
cloverleaf to eliminate
only the more critical
turning conflicts

E
W

S
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 Grade-Separated
Intersections with
Interchanges

Clover Leaf

Partial Clover
Leaf

178
 Grade-Separated Intersections with Interchanges
Directional interchange/ Stack interchange/
Free flow interchange

• Provides direct
paths for left turns.
These interchanges
contain ramps for
one or more direct
or semi direct left
turning
movements.
• There are multiple
levels of grade
separations

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 Advantages and Disadvantages of Grade-separated Intersections
Advantages
• Grade separation eliminates the stopping of vehicles while crossing the roads.
• Provides safety and reduces the risk of accidents.
• Speed-limits for grade-separated roads are generally higher which results in saving of
travel time and vehicle operation cost.
• Capacity can practically approach the total capacity of two cross roads
• Grade separation can be provide for all likely angles of any two intersecting roads.
• Stage construction of additional ramps are possible at a later stage.

Disadvantages
• Grade separation and interchange construction require a lot of money and land.
• Construction and design is complicated and requires skilled professionals.
• Cloverleaf interchange may tender confusion for road users while interchanging roads.
Hence, the driver should know the direction of each interchange ramp.

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 Collision
region

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 Time sharing principle

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182
 N

• Different movements
• Conflicting and non-conflicting
• Non-conflicting movements can be grouped together and given
right of way together (Phase)
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 TYPES OF SIGNALS
• Green periods and cycle lengths are pre-
Fixed-Time Signals
determined with fixed duration

Vehicle Actuated • Green periods vary and are related to actual

Signals demands made by traffic

• Detectors are located only on the side

Semi-actuated Signals
roads.

Type Advantages Disadvantages

Fixed-time  Simple construction  Not flexible according to
Signals  Less expensive demand
 Cause avoidable delay

Vehicle  Flexible to adjust according to  Require costly equipment

Actuated traffic demand such as detectors
 Delay is minimized to attain
Signals
maximum capacity

Semi-actuated  Useful for junctions of a low  Chances of traffic accidents is

Signals volume road. high
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 08/07/2024

BasicConceptsofIntersection
Signalisation

• Discharge headways

• Saturation flow at signalised intersections

• Delay

• Level of Service

187
 Discharge Headways
• Consider N vehicles discharging from the intersection when a green indication is
received.

• The first discharge headway is the time between the initiation of the green indication
and the rear wheels of the first vehicle to cross over the stop line.
• The Nth discharge headway (N>1) is the time between the rear wheels of the N-1 th
and Nth vehicles crossing over the stop line.
Discharge Headways

•The headway begins to level off with 4 or 5th vehicle.

•The level headway = saturation headway
 Saturation flow rate
In a given lane, if every vehicle consumes an average of h seconds of
green time, and if the signal continues to be uninterruptedly green,
then S vph could enter the intersection where S is the saturation flow
rate (vehicles per hour of green time per lane) given by

3600
S
h
 08/07/2024

Saturation Flow

• S = 525 w PCU/hour

• w = width of approach road in metres measured kerb to inside of

pedestrian refuge or centre line, whichever is nearer, or to the inside
of the central reserve in case of a dual carriageway

• Valid for widths from 5.5 to 18 m

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Capacity
The maximum hourly rate at which persons or vehicles can be reasonably
expected to traverse a point or uniform segment of a lane or roadway during a
given time period under prevailing traffic and roadway conditions.
(HCM 2000)

The formula for calculating capacity (c) is,

c = (g/C) · s · N
where:
c = capacity (PCU/hour)
g = Effective green time for the phase in question (sec)
C = Cycle length (sec)
N = no. of lanes
s = Saturation flow rate (pcu/hour)

192
 FIXED- TIME SIGNAL : PHASING DIAGRAM
• Phases are the sequence of the traffic signals to allow only certain traffic flows to pass through the
intersection at a particular time in the traffic signal timing plan
• No precise methodology for the design of phases
• Guided by the geometry of the intersection, flow pattern especially the turning movements, the
relative magnitudes of flow etc.
• Left turning traffic is neglected

• Through traffic is significant

compared to the turning movements
• Phase 1: non-conflicting through
traffic 3 and 4
• Phase 2: non-conflicting through
traffic 1 and 2
• 7 and 8, 5 and 6 offer some conflicts
and are called permitted right turns
• Not preferred if the turning
movements are significant
Two Phase System
193
Dept. of Civil Engineering, MBCET
FIXED- TIME Four Phase Signal – Option 1
SIGNAL

194
FIXED- TIME Four Phase Signal – Option 2
SIGNAL

195
FIXED- TIME Four Phase Signal – Option 3
SIGNAL

Pedestrian phase

196
Terminology (contd.)

• Cycle: One complete rotation or sequence of all signal indications

• Cycle time (or cycle length): The total time for the signal to complete one
sequence of signal indication.

Total Cycle Time

Phase I

Phase II
 08/07/2024

Interval
• change from one stage to another.

• There are two types of intervals - change interval and clearance interval.

• Change interval is also called the yellow time indicates the interval between
the green and red signal indications for an approach.

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Interval (contd.)
• Clearance interval is also called all red and is provided after each yellow
interval - for clearing off the vehicles in the intersection.

• Green interval: It is the green indication for a particular movement or set of

movements - This is the actual duration the green light of a traffic signal is
turned on.

• Red interval: It is the red indication for a particular movement or set of

movements -This is the actual duration the red light of a traffic signal is turned
on.

199
 Terminology

• Effective green time: The effective green time, for a phase, is the time
during which vehicles are actually discharging through the intersection.

• Lost Time: A portion of green or yellow time which is not utilised by

traffic flow movements in a cycle.
 LOST TIME

• It indicates the time during which the intersection is not effectively

utilized for any movement.
• When signal turns green, the driver in the front vehicle of the queue
will take some time to perceive the signal (reaction time) and some
time will be lost here before he moves
• After green, during amber, some drivers may rush and others may be
conservative

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Start-up lost time

• At the beginning of each green indication as the first few cars in a standing
queue experience start-up delays. This delay is measured as start-up lost time.

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• The clearance lost time: It is estimated by the amount

of the yellow time not used by vehicles.

• Start up lost time (l1) – Occurs each time a queue starts to move
• Clearance lost time (l2) – Occurs each time the flow of vehicle stops

For each green phase,

• tL = l 1 + l 2

tL is lost time per phase, s/phase

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TrafficEffective
Signalgreen
Times
time = Cycle length – total lost time

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Terminologies
CYCLE
One complete sequence for all signal indications [red, amber, green] for all
approaches of signal indications

CYCLE LENGTH/ TIME

Cycle length is the time in seconds that it takes a signal to complete one full
cycle of indications.
Time interval between the starting of green for one approach till the next time
the green starts. It is denoted by C.
Max. cycle length = 120 s (normally 30 to 90 s)

Green Amber Red Amber Green

Cycle length, C

SIGNAL TIMING
DIAGRAM
Dept. of Civil Engineering, MBCET
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Terminologies

INTERVAL - indicates the change from one stage to another.

Change interval / yellow (amber) time - interval between the green and red
signal indications for an approach.
Clearance interval (ALL-RED) - it is included after each yellow interval
indicating a period during which all signal faces show red and is used for
clearing off the vehicles in the intersection.

GREEN INTERVAL : green indication for a particular movement or set of

movements
RED INTERVAL : red indication for a particular movement or set of
movements

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 N
TIMING DIAGRAM
2

1
W E

All
S red
Cycle Length = 100 100s
0s sec
8 5 87 Pedestrian Phase
0s 100s

13 43 2 42 Phase EW
0s 100s

58 36 2 4 Phase NS
0s 100s
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FIXED TIME TRAFFIC SIGNAL DESIGN
WEBSTER’S METHOD

Dept. of Civil Engineering, MBCET

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SIGNAL DESIGN PROCEDURE (WEBSTER’S METHOD)

1) Phase design
2) Determination of amber time and clearance time
3) Determination of cycle length
4) Apportioning of green time
5) Pedestrian crossing requirements
6) Performance evaluation of the design obtained in the previous
steps

Dept. of Civil Engineering, MBCET

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 N
SIGNAL DESIGN
Webster’s Optimum Cycle Length
1.5 𝑳+5 W E
𝑪 o=
1 −𝒀
- Optimum cycle length, sec
L – Lost time, sec

y = Flow/Saturation flow = q/S

are the maximum ratios of flow to saturation flow for phases 1, 2, ...n
(one phase may have different approaches)

q – flow, in PCU/hour
S- saturation flow, in PCU/hour

Cycle length, C
SIGNAL DESIGN
1 – time headway of first vehicle
2 – time headway of second vehicle
……..
1
2
3
4
Discharge
headway, h

1 2 3 4 Vehicles in queue

Start up lost time =

Saturation Flow Rate, S =

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SIGNAL DESIGN
Lost time per cycle (L) – time lost at the beginning of a green
time and also at the termination of the green phase

Lost time for the phase, l = ls + lc

ls – startup lost time

lc – clearance lost time
1.5 𝑳+5
𝑪0 = Total lost time, L= nl + R
1− 𝒀
n – number of phases
R – all red period in each cycle

Effective green time,

= (G+Y) - L

G Y

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 SIGNAL DESIGN

Effective green time will be apportioned to the different phases by

the following rule so as to give least overall delay to the traffic.

- effective green times allotted to each phase

Let there are two phases, NS and EW

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SATURATION FLOW, S for NEW
SIGNAL INSTALLATIONS

S = 525 w PCU/hour
w - width of approach road in m measured from kerb to inside
of pedestrian refugee/centre line/central reserve for dual
carriage way
Formula is valid for width 5.5 m to 18 m

Saturation flow for widths 3 to 5.5 m

Width, w
(metres) 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5

S (PCU/hour) 1850 1890 1950 2250 2250 2900

Dept. of Civil Engineering, MBCET

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ADVANTAGES OF TRAFFIC SIGNALS

i. They can provide for an orderly movement of traffic

ii. When proper geometric layouts and control measures are employed, they
can increase the traffic-handling capacity of the intersection.
iii. They can reduce the frequency of certain type of accidents, especially the
right-angle type and pedestrian accidents.
iv. Under favourable conditions, they can be co-ordinated to provide for
continuous or nearly continuous movement of traffic at a definite speed
along a given route.
v. They can be used to interrupt heavy traffic at intervals to permit other
traffic to cross.
vi. Traffic signals dispense with police control and can thus be economical.
vii. If properly designed and set, they can assign right-of-way impartially to
traffic, unlike manual controls which can stop and interrupt traffic streams
at the wish of the traffic controller.

Dept. of Civil Engineering, MBCET

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DISADVANTAGES OF TRAFFIC SIGNALS, ESPECIALLY IF THEY ARE
INSTALLED IMPROPERLY

i. Excessive delay to vehicles may be caused, particularly during off-peak

hours.
ii. Unwarranted signal installations tend to encourage the disobedience of the
signal indications.
iii. Drivers may be induced to use less adequate and less safe routes to avoid
delays at signals.
iv. Accident frequency, especially of the rear-end type, may increase.
v. When the installations break down, due to any fault in the system, total and
widespread confusion and difficulties can result.

Dept. of Civil Engineering, MBCET

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NUMERICAL PROBLEMS

Dept. of Civil Engineering, MBCET

221
Q1) A fixed time 2-phase signal is to be provided at an intersection having a
North-South and an East-West road where only straight ahead traffic is
permitted.
The design hour flows from the various arms and the saturation flows for
these arms are given below:

North South East West

Design hour flow (q) in PCU/hr 800 400 750 1000
Saturation flow (S) in PCU/hr 2400 2000 3000 5000

Calculate the optimum cycle time by Webster’s method and corresponding

green times. The time lost per phase due to starting delays can be assumed to
be 2 s. The value of the amber period is 2s. Sketch the timing diagram for
each phase.

Dept. of Civil Engineering, MBCET

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Q1: Answer

Step 1:
Determine the number of phases
Phase 1 : N-S Phase 2 : E-W

Phase N-S Phase E-W

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Q1: Answer

Step 2:
Find q/S ratios and find the Critical lane

North South East West

Design hour flow (q) in PCU/hr 800 400 750 1000
Saturation flow (S) in PCU/hr 2400 2000 3000 5000
y = q/S 0.33 0.20 0.25 0.20

y (max) Values 0.33 0.25

𝐶𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 ( )
𝑞
𝑆
=𝑌 =∑
𝑞
𝑆 ( )
=0.33 +0.25=0.58

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Q1: Answer
Step 3:
Determine the total lost time

Lost per phase (given) = 2 s per phase

All red period, R (not mentioned) = 0
Number of phases, n = 2

L = 2*2 + 0 = 4s

Step 4:
Determine Optimum Cycle Length
= 26.19 s
1.5 𝑳+5
𝑪0 =
1− 𝒀
Round off to Co = 30 s

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Q1: Answer
Step 5:
Splitting of Green time to the two phases

gNS gEW

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Q1: Answer
Step 6: Draw the Timing Diagram
Total Cycle time = 30 s Total Cycle time = 30 s
gNS = 15 s gEW = 11 s
ANS = 2 s AEW = 2 s
RNS = 30 – 15 – 2 = 13 s REW = 30 – 11 – 2 = 17s s

Cycle length = 30 s

NS Phase 15 2 13
0s 15s 17s 30s

EW Phase 17 11 2
0s 17s 28s 30s

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 Thank You!

Dept. of Civil Engineering, MBCET 228