Module 1

Introduction to Formal Proofs

Introduction to Formal Proof
• Types of Proof
• Deductive proof:
• A sequence of justified steps

• Inductive proof:
• Recursive proofs of a parameterized statements

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Deductive Proofs
• Consists of a sequence of statements whose truth lead us from
some initial statement called the hypothesis / given statement to
a conclusion statement
• Hypothesis may be true / false, typically depending on the
values of its parameters
• When we go from hypothesis H to conclusion C
• IF H THEN C  C is deduced from H
• Ex:
• If x >=4, then 2x >=x2
• If x is the sum of squares of four positive integers, then 2x >= x2
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Additional Forms of Proof

1. Proofs about sets

2. Proofs by contradiction

3. Proofs by counter example

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1. Proving equivalence about sets
• If E and F are two expressions representing sets, the statement
E = F means that the two sets represented are the same.
• We can prove the equivalence of Sets E = F in the following
ways:
1. By commutative law of union of two sets R and S as R U S =
SUR
Where E is the expression for R U S and F is the expression for
SUR
So, E = F by commutative law of union

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Cont..
2.We can prove the set equality E = F by if and only if
statement, that is “an element ‘x’ is in E iff ‘x’ is in F”

3.The set equality E = F can be proved by two if

statements as follows:
i. If ‘x’ is in E, then ‘x’ is in F
ii. If ‘x’ is in F, then ‘x’ is in E

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Contrapositive
• The contrapositive of the statement “if H then C” is “if not C then
not H”, and it is represented as
H  C  7C  7H

• To prove that “if H then C” and “if not C, then not H” are logically
equivalent, there are four cases to consider:
• H and C both are true
• H is true and C is False
• C is true and H is False
• H and C both are False
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Example

• “If ‘x’ is in E then ‘x’ is in F” and the contrapositive

statement is

“if ‘x’ is not in F then ‘x’ is not in E”

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2. Proof by contradiction
• Another way to prove the statement “if H then C” by the form,

H and not C implies contradiction

• Proof by Contradiction:
• We assume that the Hypothesis and the negation of the conclusion as
true and then we completed the proof by showing that something
known to be false.
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Example
• Prove the following statement by contradiction:
The sum of two even numbers is always even.

• Soln:
• Negate original statement:
The sum of two even numbers is not always even.
Take two even numbers, say 2 and 4, sum them (2 + 4 = 6) which is an even.
Take two even numbers, say 12 and 16, sum them (12 + 16 = 30) which is an
even.
Therefore, by contradiction, the sum of two even numbers is always even
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3. Counter Examples

• To prove theorem itself is true or false

• To solve this problem, we try to prove the theorem else if we are

unable to prove the theorem, then we try to prove that the
theorem statement is False.

• It is easy to prove that a statement is not a theorem than to

prove it is a theorem.
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Example:
• Theorem: All primes are odd
Proof: if x is prime, then x is odd

Disproof: if 2 is prime, then 2 is even [Not odd]

• Theorem: There is no pairs of integers ‘a’ and ‘b’ such that “a

mod b = b mod a”
Proof: If a and b are integers, then a mod b ≠ b mod a

Disproof: Let a = b =2, then a mod b- TOC

BCSE304L = b mod a  2 mod 2 = 2 mod 2 = 0
Inductive Proofs

• Deals with recursively defined objects like trees and expressions

of various kinds such as regular expression

• Inductive proof includes the following:

a. Induction on Integers

b. Structural Induction

c. Mutual Induction

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a. Induction on Integers
• Suppose if we are given a statement, S(n) about an integer ‘n’
which is to be proved, then we have to prove the following:
• Basis: We prove S(n) for particular integer ‘n’ when n = 0,1,2
• Induction: If S(n) then S(n+1) when n>=i, where ‘i’ is basis integer
• General form of induction: S(i) S(i+1) S(i+2) …… S(n)
• Induction Principle:
• If we prove S(i) and we prove that for all n>=i, S(n) implies S(n+1)
then we conclude S(n) for all n>=i
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Proof by mathematical induction
Proof by mathematical induction consists of three basic steps. If
the statement S is to be proved then:
1) Show that S is true for some particular integer n0
- this is called Basis
2) Assume S is true for some particular integer k ≥ n0
-this is called Induction hypothesis
3) Then to prove S is true for k+1
- this is called Induction step

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Example: 1
Show that for any n ≥ 1, 1 + 2 + . . . + n = n(n+1)/2 by induction

Solution:
Let S(n) : 1 + 2 + . . . + n = n(n+1)/2
S(2) : 1+2 = 2(2+1)/2 = 3 S(3) : 1+2+3 = 3(3+1)/2 = 6
Basis step: S(1) : 1 = 1(1+1)/2 = 1 S(2) is true S(3) is true
S(1) is true.
Induction hypothesis: Assume that S(n) is true for some n.
S(n): 1 + 2 + . . . + n = n(n+1)/2 ------------(1)
Induction step: To prove S(n+1) is also true.
Take the LHS S(n+1) and prove the RHS.
1 + 2 + . . . + n + (n+1) = n(n+1)/2 + (n+1) = (n+1) (n/2 +1) using (1)
= (n+1)(n+2)/2
Therefore, S(n+1) is true and henceBCSE304L
S(n) is true for any n.
- TOC
Problem 2
Prove the following by induction for all n >= 0,
12+ 22 + . . . + n2 = n(n+1)(2n+1)/6

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Cont…

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Cont…

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Problem 3
Prove 13+ 23 + . . . + n3 = n2(n+1)2/4 by mathematical
induction for n>=0.

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Cont..

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Problem 4
Prove that S(n) = an – bn is divisible by (a-b) for all n>0

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b) Structural Induction
• Deals with recursive definition
that has
1. Basis: Where one or more
elementary structures are defined

2. Induction: Where more complex

structures are defined in terms of
previously defined structures.

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c) Mutual Inductions
When there are several independent statements to prove then
we keep the statements separate and prove them all in their own
parts of the basis and inductive step.

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