WIRELESS

COMMUNICATIO
N
Unit 2
 Multiple Access techniques - FDMA, TDMA, CDMA – Capacity calculations – Cellular
concept - Frequency reuse - channel assignment- hand off - interference & system capacity -
trunking & grade of service – Coverage and capacity improvement
 In wireless communication systems, it is often desirable to allow the subscriber to send
information simultaneously from the mobile station to the base station while receiving
information from the base station to the mobile station.
 A cellular system divides any given area into cells where a mobile unit in each cell
communicates with a base station. The main aim in the cellular system design is to be able
to increase the capacity of the channel, i.e., to handle as many calls as possible in a given
bandwidth with a sufficient level of quality of service.
 There are several different ways to allow access to the channel. These includes mainly the
following
 Frequency division multiple-access (FDMA)
 Time division multiple-access (TDMA)
 Code division multiple-access (CDMA)
 Depending on how the available bandwidth is allocated to the users, these techniques can be
classified as narrowband and wideband systems.
 Narrowband Systems
 Systems operating with channels substantially narrower than the coherence bandwidth are
called as Narrow band systems. Narrow band TDMA allows users to use the same channel but
allocates a unique time slot to each user on the channel, thus separating a small number of
users in time on a single channel.
 Wideband Systems
 In wideband systems, the transmission bandwidth of a single channel is much larger than the
coherence bandwidth of the channel. Thus, multipath fading doesn’t greatly affect the received
signal within a wideband channel, and frequency selective fades occur only in a small fraction
of the signal bandwidth.
FREQUENCY DIVISION
MULTIPLE-ACCESS (FDMA)
 Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) is one of the most common analogue multiple
access methods. The frequency band is divided into channels of equal bandwidth so that each
conversation is carried on a different frequency.
 In FDMA method, guard bands are used between the adjacent signal spectra to minimize
crosstalk between the channels.
 A specific frequency band is given to one person, and it will received by identifying each of
the frequency on the receiving end. It is often used in the first generation of analog mobile
phone.
ADVANTAGES OF FDMA

 Reduces the bit rate information and the use of efficient numerical codes increases the
capacity.
 It reduces the cost and lowers the inter symbol interference (ISI)
 Equalization is not necessary.
 An FDMA system can be easily implemented. A system can be configured so that the
improvements in terms of speech encoder and bit rate reduction may be easily incorporated.
 Since the transmission is continuous, less number of bits are required for synchronization and
framing.
DISADVANTAGES OF FDMA
 It does not differ significantly from analog systems; improving the capacity depends on the
signal-to-interference reduction, or a signal-to-noise ratio (SNR).
 The maximum flow rate per channel is fixed and small.
 Guard bands lead to a waste of capacity.
 Hardware implies narrowband filters, which cannot be realized in VLSI and therefore
increases the cost.
TIME DIVISION MULTIPLE-
ACCESS (TDMA)
 Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) is a digital cellular telephone communication
technology. It facilitates many users to share the same frequency without interference. Its
technology divides a signal into different timeslots, and increases the data carrying capacity.
 Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) is a complex technology, because it requires an
accurate synchronization between the transmitter and the receiver. TDMA is used in digital
mobile radio systems. The individual mobile stations cyclically assign a frequency for the
exclusive use of a time interval
 In most of the cases, the entire system bandwidth for an interval of time is not assigned to a
station. However, the frequency of the system is divided into sub-bands, and TDMA is used
for the multiple access in each sub-band. Sub-bands are known as carrier frequencies. The
mobile system that uses this technique is referred as the multi-carrier systems.
 In the following example, the frequency band has been shared by three users. Each user is
assigned definite timeslots to send and receive data. In this example, user ‘B’ sends after
user ‘A,’ and user ‘C’ sends thereafter. In this way, the peak power becomes a problem and
larger by the burst communication.
ADVANTAGES OF TDMA
 Permits flexible rates (i.e. several slots can be assigned to a user, for example, each time
interval translates 32Kbps, a user is assigned two 64 Kbps slots per frame).
 Can withstand gusty or variable bit rate traffic. Number of slots allocated to a user can be
changed frame by frame (for example, two slots in the frame 1, three slots in the frame 2, one
slot in the frame 3, frame 0 of the notches 4, etc.).
 No guard band required for the wideband system.
 No narrowband filter required for the wideband system.
DISADVANTAGES OF TDMA
 High data rates of broadband systems require complex equalization.
 Due to the burst mode, a large number of additional bits are required for synchronization and
supervision.
 Call time is needed in each slot to accommodate time to inaccuracies (due to clock instability).
 Electronics operating at high bit rates increase energy consumption.
 Complex signal processing is required to synchronize within short slots.
CODE DIVISION MULTIPLE-
ACCESS (CDMA)
 Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) is a sort of multiplexing that facilitates various
signals to occupy a single transmission channel. It optimizes the use of available bandwidth.
The technology is commonly used in ultra-high-frequency (UHF) cellular telephone systems,
bands ranging between the 800-MHz and 1.9-GHz.
 Code Division Multiple Access system is very different from time and frequency multiplexing.
In this system, a user has access to the whole bandwidth for the entire duration. The basic
principle is that different CDMA codes are used to distinguish among the different users.
 Techniques generally used are direct sequence spread spectrum modulation (DS-CDMA),
frequency hopping or mixed CDMA detection (JDCDMA). Here, a signal is generated which
extends over a wide bandwidth. A code called spreading code is used to perform this action.
Using a group of codes, which are orthogonal to each other, it is possible to select a signal
with a given code in the presence of many other signals with different orthogonal codes.
ADVANTAGES OF CDMA
 CDMA requires a tight power control, as it suffers from near-far effect. In other words, a user
near the base station transmitting with the same power will drown the signal latter. All signals
must have more or less equal power at the receiver
 Rake receivers can be used to improve signal reception. Delayed versions of time (a chip or
later) of the signal (multipath signals) can be collected and used to make decisions at the bit
level.
 Flexible transfer may be used. Mobile base stations can switch without changing operator.
Two base stations receive mobile signal and the mobile receives signals from the two base
stations.
 Transmission Burst − reduces interference.
DISADVANTAGES OF CDMA

 The code length must be carefully selected. A large code length can induce delay or may cause
interference.
 Time synchronization is required.
 Gradual transfer increases the use of radio resources and may reduce capacity.
 As the sum of the power received and transmitted from a base station needs constant tight
power control. This can result in several handovers.
CAPACITY CALCULATIONS
 Capacity calculations in wireless communication involve
determining the maximum data rate or number of users
that a wireless system can support within a given
bandwidth, signal-to-noise ratio, and other constraints.
 Here's a simplified overview of how capacity is calculated
in wireless communication:
 Shannon Capacity Formula: The Shannon capacity formula, developed by Claude Shannon,
provides an upper bound on the channel capacity of a communication system. It states that the
maximum achievable data rate (C) over a noisy channel is given by:
 C = B * log2(1 + SNR)
 Where:
 C is the channel capacity in bits per second (bps)
 B is the bandwidth of the channel in hertz (Hz)
 SNR is the signal-to-noise ratio, which is the ratio of the signal power to the noise power.
 This formula assumes an additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN) channel and ideal
conditions.
 Multiple Access Techniques: In wireless communication systems
where multiple users share the same bandwidth, multiple access
techniques like FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access),
TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access), CDMA (Code Division
Multiple Access), or OFDMA (Orthogonal Frequency Division
Multiple Access) are used to allocate resources efficiently among
users.
 The capacity calculation then involves considering the specific
multiple access technique and its parameters.
 Cellular Networks: In cellular networks, capacity calculation
involves factors such as cell size, reuse factor, interference, and cell
load. The Erlang formula is often used to calculate the number of
channels (or users) required to support a given traffic load in a cell.
 Antenna Techniques: Antenna techniques like MIMO (Multiple
Input Multiple Output) can increase capacity by exploiting spatial
diversity. Capacity calculations in MIMO systems involve
considering the number of antennas, channel correlation, and
spatial multiplexing gain.
 Real-world Considerations: In real-world scenarios, various
practical limitations such as hardware constraints, channel fading,
interference, and modulation and coding schemes also affect the
capacity of wireless systems. These factors need to be taken into
account in capacity calculations.
 Quality of Service (QoS): Capacity calculations may also need to
consider the required quality of service parameters such as latency,
jitter, and reliability, which can impact the achievable data rate and
number of users.
 Capacity calculations in wireless communication are often complex
and depend on several factors specific to the communication system
and the deployment scenario. Advanced simulation tools and
mathematical models are commonly used for accurate capacity
estimation.
CELLULAR CONCEPT
 The cellular concept in wireless communication is a fundamental architecture that divides a
geographic region into smaller areas called cells. Each cell is served by a base station (also
known as a cell site or cell tower), and these cells collectively form a cellular network.
 The cellular concept is widely used in mobile communications systems such as GSM (Global
System for Mobile Communications), CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access), LTE (Long-
Term Evolution), and 5G.
 Cells: Cells are geographic areas covered by a base station. They can vary in size depending
on factors such as population density, terrain, and frequency allocation policies. Cells are
typically hexagonal in shape, although they can be irregular in practice.
 Base Stations: Each cell is served by a base station, which is responsible for transmitting and
receiving signals to and from mobile devices within its coverage area. Base stations are
equipped with antennas and radio equipment to communicate with mobile devices.
 Frequency Reuse: To maximize the spectral efficiency of the system, the same set of radio
frequencies is reused across different cells within a network. Cells that are sufficiently far
apart and have minimal interference are assigned the same frequencies. This allows for
efficient utilization of the available frequency spectrum.
 Handoff: As mobile devices move from one cell to another, the network orchestrates a
handoff process to maintain the ongoing call or data session. Handoff ensures seamless
connectivity as the mobile device transitions between cells. There are different types of
handoffs, including soft handoff and hard handoff, depending on the technology and network
architecture.
 Cell Planning: Cellular network design involves careful planning of cell size, base station
locations, antenna heights, and frequency allocation to optimize coverage, capacity, and
quality of service. Factors such as interference, propagation characteristics, and user density
are taken into account during the planning phase.
 Cellular Network Architecture: In addition to base stations, cellular networks consist of
various network elements such as mobile switching centers (MSCs), home location registers
(HLRs), visitor location registers (VLRs), and authentication centers (AuCs). These elements
work together to route calls, manage mobility, and provide network services to subscribers.
 Capacity and Coverage: The cellular concept enables efficient use of available radio
spectrum by dividing it into small, manageable cells. This approach allows for high-capacity
and widespread coverage, even in densely populated areas. Additionally, smaller cells can
improve signal quality and mitigate interference, resulting in better overall performance for
mobile users.
CELLULAR SYSTEMS-BASIC
CONCEPTS
 Cellular system solves the problem of spectral congestion.
 • Offers high capacity in limited spectrum.
 • High capacity is achieved by limiting the coverage area of each BS to a small geographical
area called cell.
 • Replaces high powered transmitter with several low power transmitters
 Each BS is allocated a portion of total channels and nearby cells are allocated completely
different channels.
 • All available channels are allocated to small no of neighboring BS.
 • Interference between neighboring BS’s is minimized by allocating different channels.
 Same frequencies are reused by spatially separated BS’s.
 • Interference between co-channels stations is kept below
acceptable level.
 • Additional radio capacity is achieved.
 • Frequency Reuse-Fix no of channels serve an arbitrarily
large no of subscribers
FREQUENCY REUSE
 Used by service providers to improve the efficiency of a cellular network and to serve millions
of subscribers using a limited radio spectrum.
 • After covering a certain distance a radio wave gets attenuated and the signal falls below a
point where it can be no longer used.
 A transmitter transmitting in a specific frequency range will have only a limited coverage area
 • Beyond this coverage area, that frequency can be reused by another transmitter.
 • The entire network coverage area is divided into cells based on the principle of frequency
reuse
 A cell = basic geographical unit of a cellular network & the area around an antenna where a
specific frequency range is used.
 • When a subscriber moves to another cell, the antenna of the new cell takes over the signal
transmission
 • A cluster is a group of adjacent cells, usually 7 cells; no frequency reuse is done within a
cluster
 • The frequency spectrum is divided into sub-bands & each subband is used within one cell of
the cluster
 The design process of selecting and allocating channel groups for all of the cellular base
stations within a system is called frequency reuse or frequency planning.
 • Cell labeled with same letter use the same set of frequencies.
 • Cell Shapes - Circle, Square, Triangle and Hexagon.
 • Hexagonal cell shape is conceptual , in reality it is irregular in shape
 In hexagonal cell model, BS transmitter can be in centre of cell or on its 3 vertices.
 • Centered excited cells use omni directional whereas edge excited cells use directional
antennas.
 • A cellular system having ‘S’ duplex channels, each cell is allocated ‘k’ channels (k
 N cells collectively using all the channels is called a cluster, - a group of adjacent cells.
 • If cluster repeated M times, the capacity C of system is given as
 C = MkN = MS
 • Capacity of system is directly proportional to the no of times the cluster repeated
 . • Reducing the cluster size N while keeping the cell size constant, more clusters are required
to cover the given area and hence more capacity.
 • Co-channel interference is dependent on cluster size, large cluster size less interference and
vice versa.
CHANNEL ASSIGNMENT-
 Fixed Assignment Strategy
 • A scheme for increasing capacity and minimizing interference is required for effective
utilization of radio spectrum.
 • CAS can be classified as either fixed or dynamic
 • Choice of CAS impacts the performance of system for call management.
 • In Fixed CA each cell is assigned a predetermined set of voice channels
 Any call attempt within the cell can only be served by the unused channel in that particular
cell
 • If all the channels in the cell are occupied, the call is blocked & the user does not get
service.
 • In variation of FCA – called borrowing strategy, a cell can borrow channels from its
neighboring cell if its own channels are full.
 Dynamic Channel Assignment • Voice channels are not allocated to different cells
permanently.
 • Each time a call request is made, the BS request a channel from the MSC.
 • MSC allocates a channel to the requesting cell using an algorithm that takes into account –
 – likelihood of future blocking
 – The reuse distance of the channel ( should not cause interference)
 – Other parameters like cost
 To ensure min QoS, MSC only allocates a given frequency, not currently in use in the cell or
any other cell which falls within the limiting reuse distance.
 This increases the storage and computational load on the system
 • But provides the advantage of increased channel utilization and decreased probability of a
blocked call.
HAND OFF