AC NETWORKS

GROUP 4A

RUMBIDZAI MAGWAZA F R184636V

KUDZANAI CHIZEYA R183169A

TAWANDA CHIVASA R181239R

TAPIWA TAKURA R1710989G

TATENDA MASHAVA R1711512Q

HUMPHREY ZIVANAI R183207X

TAWANDA MHIRIPIRI R141980V

EPHRAIM DUBE R183340B

TANATSWA MUJENI R185706X

JETHRO DURWAYI R184390J

ENERGY-STORAGE(DYNAMIC) CIRCUIT ELEMENTS

• Two distinct mechanisms that lead to the storage of energy in a electromagnetic field are
namely capacitance and induction

• Capacitance -the ability of a system to store an electric charge.The ratio of the change in
an electric charge in a system to the corresponding change in its electric potential.
ENERGY-STORAGE(DYNAMIC) CIRCUIT
ELEMENTS
• INDUCTION-the process by which a body having electric or magnetic properties
produces magnetism, an electric charge, or an electromotive force in a neighboring body
without contact.

• Inductance is the name given to the property of a circuit whereby there is an e.m.f.
induced into the circuit by the change of flux linkages produced by a current change.
THE IDEAL CAPACITOR

• Capacitor-is a device that can store energy in the form of a charge separation when
appropriately polarized by an electric field (i.e., a voltage).
• A typical capacitor is made of two parallel conducting plates separated by an insulator.
• Capacitors are used extensively in electrical and electronic circuits.
• For example, capacitors are used to smooth rectified a.c. outputs, they are used in
telecommunication equipment – such as radio receivers – for tuning to the required frequency,
they are used in time delay circuits, in electrical filters, in oscillator circuits, and in magnetic
resonance imaging (MRI) in medical body scanners, to name but a few practical applications.
TYPICAL CAPACITOR
CAPACITOR

• two parallel conducting plates of crosssectional area A, separated by air (or another dielectric1 material, such as mica or Teflon).
• The presence of an insulating material between the conducting plates does not allow for the flow of DC current; thus, a capacitor
acts as an open circuit in the presence of DC currents
• In the presence of an voltage source , electrons travel from the voltage source to the capacitor and charge one of the plates with
excess electrons.
• The electric field from these electrons repel electrons from the opposing plate and equal but positive charge develops on that plate.
• The repelled electrons from the positive plate travel to the source. As such, the total charge stored in a capacitor is zero but
consists of two separated amount of equal charges with different polarity.
• In this way, a capacitor can store energy in the form of electric field between the two plates, which is proportional to the voltage
between the two plates.
IDEAL CAPACITORS

where Q = CV
• C is called the capacitance of the element and is a measure of the ability of the device to
accumulate, or store, charge.
• It is the constant of proportionality
• N.B that the total charge stored in a capacitor is zero, the charge mentioned here is the charge on one
of the plates (the plate marked with + of voltage v).
• The unit of capacitance is the coulomb/volt and is called the farad (F).
• The farad is an unpractically large unit; therefore it is common to use microfarads (1 µF = 10−6 F)
or picofarads (1 pF = 10−12 F).
 IDEAL CAPACITOR

• Where

Capacitance C = unit Farad (F)

• As the number of electrons flowing into the negative plate is equal to the number of electrons flowing out of the positive
plate, the current flowing into one plate of capacitor is exactly equal to the current flowing out of the other plate.

• That follows to

q =Cv

but voltage applied to the capacitor plates changes in time, so will the charge that is internally stored by the capacitor:

q(t) = Cv(t) (1)

IDEAL CAPACITOR

• The change with time in the stored charge is analogous to a current.

• Given by i(t) = (2)

• that electric current corresponds to the time rate of change of charge

• Differentiating equation (1) gives the relationship between the voltage and current in a
capacitor
 IDEAL CAPACITOR

i(t) = C (3)
• That defines the circuit law of capacitors
• If the differential equation that defines the i-v relationship for a capacitor is integrated, the following relationship for the voltage
across a capacitor is obtained :

• (4)

Equation 4 indicates that the capacitor voltage depends on the past current through the capacitor, up until the present time, t. Of
course, one does not usually have precise information regarding the flow of capacitor current for all past time, and so it is useful to
define the initial voltage (or initial condition) for the capacitor according to the following, where t0 is an arbitrary initial time::
IDEAL CAPACITOR

• (5)

• Capacitor voltage can now be given by

(6)

• The significance of the initial voltage, V 0, is simply that at time t0 some charge is stored in the capacitor,
giving rise to a voltage, vC(t 0), according to the relationship Q = CV . Knowledge of this initial condition is
sufficient to account for the entire past history of the capacitor current.
 IDEAL CAPACITORS

• Capacitors connected in series and parallel can be combined to yield a single equivalent
capacitance
• Capacitors in parallel add. Capacitors in series combine according to the same rules used for
resistors connected in parallel.
IDEAL CAPACITORS

Capacitors connected in series and parallel

can be combined to yield a single
equivalent capacitance

Capacitors in parallel add. Capacitors in

series combine according to the same rules
used for resistors connected in parallel.
ENERGY STORED IN CAPACITORS

• The instantaneous power in a circuit element is equal to the product of voltage and
current:
ENERGY STORED IN CAPACITORS

FORMULA FOR ENERGY STORED

IN A CAPACITOR FORMULA
ENERGY STORED IN CAPACITORS

• An example
PROBLEM ON ENERGY STORED IN A CAPACITOR

• (a) Determine the energy stored in a 3 μF

capacitor when charged to 400V
• (b) Find also the average power
developed if this energy is dissipated in a
time of 10 μs.
ANSWER
THE IDEAL INDUCTOR

• The ideal inductor is an element that has the ability to store energy in a magnetic field.
• Inductors are typically made by winding a coil of wire around a core, which can be an insulator or a
ferromagnetic material
• As current flows through the wire, a magnetic field is produced.
• When a conductor is moved across a magnetic field so as to cut through the lines of force (or flux), an
electromotive force (e.m.f.) is produced in the conductor.
• If the conductor forms part of a closed circuit then the e.m.f. produced causes an electric current to flow round
the circuit.
• Hence an e.m.f. (and thus current) is ‘induced’ in the conductor as a result of its movement across the magnetic
field.
THE IDEAL INDUCTOR

• (a) shows a coil of wire connected to a

centre-zero galvanometer, which is a
sensitive ammeter with the zero-current
position in the centre of the scale.
• (a) When the magnet is moved at
constant speed towards the coil (Fig(a)),
a deflection is noted on the galvanometer
showing that a current has been
produced in the coil.
THE IDEAL INDUCTOR

(b) When the magnet is moved at the same speed as

in (a) but away from the coil the same deflection is
noted but is in the opposite direction (see Fig. (b))
(c) When the magnet is held stationary, even within
the coil, no deflection is recorded.
(d) When the coil is moved at the same speed as in
(a) and the magnet held stationary the same
galvanometer deflection is noted.
(e) When the relative speed is, say, doubled, the
galvanometer deflection is doubled.
THE IDEAL INDUCTOR

(f) When a stronger magnet is used, a

greater galvanometer deflection is noted.

(g) When the number of turns of wire of

the coil is increased, a greater
galvanometer deflection is noted.
THE IDEAL INDUCTOR

• Figure (c) shows the magnetic field

associated with the magnet.
• As the magnet is moved towards the coil,
the magnetic flux of the magnet moves
across,or cuts, the coil. It is the relative
movement of the magnetic flux and the
coil that causes an e.m.f. and thus current,
to be induced in the coil. This effect
isknown as electromagnetic induction.
IDEAL INDUCTOR

• In an ideal inductor, the resistance of the wire is zero, so that a constant current through the inductor will flow freely
without causing a voltage drop.
• In other words, the ideal inductor acts as a short circuit in the presence of DC currents.
• If a time-varying voltage is established across the inductor, a corresponding current will result, according to the
following relationship:

• where L is called the inductance of the coil and is measured in henrys (H), where :1 H = 1 V-s/A
• Henrys are reasonable units for practical inductors; millihenrys (mH) and microhenrys (µH) are also used.
IDEAL INDUCTOR

• The behavior of an ideal inductor is defined, with the expression relating capacitor current and voltage:

• Inductors in series add. Inductors in parallel combine according to the same rules used for resistors
connected in parallel.
INDUCTORS IN SERIES AND PARALLEL
ENERGY STORAGE IN INDUCTORS

• An inductor possesses an ability to store energy. The energy stored, W, in the magnetic
field of an inductors given by:
ENERGY STORAGE IN INDUCTORS

QUESTION ANSWER
• An 8 H inductor has a current of 3A
flowing through it. How much energy is
stored in the magnetic field of the
inductor?
EXAMPLE