Chapter 4: Network Layer

Chapter goals:
 understand principles behind network layer
services:
 network layer service models
 forwarding versus routing
 how a router works
 routing (path selection)
 dealing with scale
 advanced topics: IPv6, mobility

 instantiation, implementation in the Internet

4-1
Chapter 4: Network Layer
 4. 1 Introduction  4.5 Routing algorithms
 4.2 Virtual circuit and  Link state
 Distance Vector
datagram networks
 Hierarchical routing
 4.3 What’s inside a
router  4.6 Routing in the
 4.4 IP: Internet Internet
 RIP
Protocol
 OSPF
 Datagram format
 BGP
 IPv4 addressing
 4.7 Broadcast and
 NAT
 ICMP multicast routing
 IPv6
4-2
Network layer
 on sending side encapsulates
segments into datagrams application
transport
network
data link network
 on rcving side, delivers physical
network data link network
data link physical
segments to transport layer physical
data link
physical
network
data link
physical network
 network layer protocols in data link
physical
every host, router
network
network data link
data link physical
physical
 Router examines header fields network
application
in all IP datagrams passing
data link
physical transport
network
through it data link
physical

4-3
Key Network-Layer Functions
 forwarding: move analogy:
packets from router’s
 routing: process of
input to appropriate
router output planning trip from
source to dest
 routing: determine
 forwarding: process
route taken by
packets from source of correct left turns,
to dest. right turns, exits,
etc.
 Routing algorithms

4-4
Interplay between routing and forwarding

routing algorithm

local forwarding table

header value output link
0100 3
0101 2
0111 2
1001 1

value in arriving
packet’s header
0111 1

3 2

4-5
Connection setup
 important function in some network
architectures:
 ATM, frame relay, X.25

 Before datagrams flow, two hosts and

intervening routers establish virtual
connection
 Routers get involved

 Network and transport layer cnctn service:

 Network: between two hosts
 Transport: between two processes
4-6
Network service model
Q: What service model for “channel” transporting
datagrams from sender to rcvr?

Example services for Example services for a

individual datagrams: flow of datagrams:
 guaranteed delivery  In-order datagram
 Guaranteed delivery delivery
with less than 40 msec  Guaranteed minimum
delay bandwidth to flow
 Restrictions on
changes in inter-
packet spacing

4-7
Chapter 4: Network Layer
 4. 1 Introduction  4.5 Routing algorithms
 4.2 Virtual circuit and  Link state
 Distance Vector
datagram networks
 Hierarchical routing
 4.3 What’s inside a
router  4.6 Routing in the
 4.4 IP: Internet Internet
 RIP
Protocol
 OSPF
 Datagram format
 BGP
 IPv4 addressing
 4.7 Broadcast and
 ICMP
 IPv6 multicast routing

4-8
Network layer connection and
connection-less service
 Datagram network provides network-layer
connectionless service
 VC network provides network-layer
connection service
 Analogous to the transport-layer services,
but:
 Service:host-to-host
 No choice: network provides one or the other
 Implementation: in the core

4-9
Virtual circuits
“source-to-dest path behaves much like telephone
circuit”
 performance-wise
 network actions along source-to-dest path

 call setup, teardown for each call before data can flow
 each packet carries VC identifier (not destination host
address)
 every router on source-dest path maintains “state” for each
passing connection
 link, router resources (bandwidth, buffers) may be allocated
to VC

4-10
VC implementation
A VC consists of:
1. Path from source to destination
2. VC numbers, one number for each link along path
3. Entries in forwarding tables in routers along path
Example next slide

 Packet belonging to VC carries a VC number.

 VC number must be changed on each link.

 New VC number comes from forwarding table
4-11
 Forwarding table VC number

12 22 32

1 3
2

Forwarding table in interface

number
northwest router:
Incoming interface Incoming VC # Outgoing interface Outgoing VC #

1 12 3 22
2 63 1 18
3 7 2 17
1 97 3 87
… … … …

Routers maintain connection state information!

4-12
Virtual circuits: signaling protocols

 used to setup, maintain teardown VC

 used in ATM, frame-relay, X.25
 not used in today’s Internet

application
6. Receive data application
transport 5. Data flow begins
network 4. Call connected 3. Accept call transport
data link 1. Initiate call 2. incoming call network
data link
physical
physical

4-13
Datagram networks
 no call setup at network layer
 routers: no state about end-to-end connections
 no network-level concept of “connection”

 packets forwarded using destination host address

 packets between same source-dest pair may take different
paths

application
application
transport
transport
network
data link 1. Send data 2. Receive data network
data link
physical
physical

4-14
 4 billion
Forwarding table possible entries

Destination Address Range Link Interface

11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000

through 0
11001000 00010111 00010111 11111111

11001000 00010111 00011000 00000000

through 1
11001000 00010111 00011000 11111111

11001000 00010111 00011001 00000000

through 2
11001000 00010111 00011111 11111111

otherwise 3

4-15
Longest prefix matching
Prefix Match Link Interface
11001000 00010111 00010 0
11001000 00010111 00011000 1
11001000 00010111 00011 2
otherwise 3

Examples

DA: 11001000 00010111 00010110 10100001 Which interface?

DA: 11001000 00010111 00011000 10101010 Which interface?

4-16
Datagram or VC network: why?

Internet ATM
 data exchange among  evolved from telephony
computers  human conversation:
 “elastic” service, no strict
timing req.
strict timing, reliability
 “smart” end systems
requirements
 need for guaranteed
(computers)
 can adapt, perform
service
 “dumb” end systems
control, error recovery
 simple inside network,  telephones

complexity at “edge”  complexity inside

 many link types network
 different characteristics
 uniform service difficult

4-17
Chapter 4: Network Layer
 4. 1 Introduction  4.5 Routing algorithms
 4.2 Virtual circuit and  Link state
 Distance Vector
datagram networks
 Hierarchical routing
 4.3 What’s inside a
router  4.6 Routing in the
 4.4 IP: Internet Internet
 RIP
Protocol
 OSPF
 Datagram format
 BGP
 IPv4 addressing
 4.7 Broadcast and
 ICMP
 IPv6 multicast routing

4-18
Router Architecture Overview
Two key router functions:
 run routing algorithms/protocol (RIP, OSPF, BGP)
 forwarding datagrams from incoming to outgoing link

4-19
 Input Port Functions

Physical layer:
bit-level reception
Data link layer: Decentralized switching:
 given datagram dest., lookup output port
e.g., Ethernet
see chapter 5 using forwarding table in input port
memory
 goal: complete input port processing at
‘line speed’
 queuing: if datagrams arrive faster than
forwarding rate into switch fabric

4-20
Three types of switching fabrics

4-21
Switching Via Memory
First generation routers:
traditional computers with switching under direct control of CPU
packet copied to system’s memory
speed limited by memory bandwidth (2 bus crossings per datagram)

Input Memory Output

Port Port

System Bus

4-22
 Switching Via a Bus

 datagram from input port memory

to output port memory via a shared bus

 bus contention: switching speed limited

by bus bandwidth

 1 Gbps bus, Cisco 1900: sufficient speed

for access and enterprise routers (not
regional or backbone)
4-23
Switching Via An Interconnection
Network

 overcome bus bandwidth limitations

 Banyan networks, other interconnection nets
initially developed to connect processors in
multiprocessor
 Advanced design: fragmenting datagram into fixed
length cells, switch cells through the fabric.
 Synchronous

 Cisco 12000: switches Gbps through the

interconnection network

4-24
Output Ports

 Buffering required when datagrams arrive from fabric faster than the
transmission rate
 Scheduling discipline chooses among queued datagrams for transmission

4-25
Output port queueing

 buffering when arrival rate via switch exceeds output line speed
 queueing (delay) and loss due to output port buffer overflow!

4-26
Input Port Queuing
 Fabric slower than input ports combined -> queueing
may occur at input queues
 Head-of-the-Line (HOL) blocking: queued datagram
at front of queue prevents others in queue from
moving forward
 queueing delay and loss due to input buffer overflow!

4-27
Chapter 4: Network Layer
 4. 1 Introduction  4.5 Routing algorithms
 4.2 Virtual circuit and  Link state
 Distance Vector
datagram networks
 Hierarchical routing
 4.3 What’s inside a
router  4.6 Routing in the
 4.4 IP: Internet Internet
 RIP
Protocol
 OSPF
 Datagram format
 BGP
 IPv4 addressing
 4.7 Broadcast and
 ICMP
 IPv6 multicast routing

4-28
 The Internet Network layer
Host, router network layer functions:

Transport layer: TCP, UDP

Routing protocols IP protocol

•path selection •addressing conventions
•RIP, OSPF, BGP •datagram format
Network •packet handling conventions
layer forwarding
ICMP protocol
table
•error reporting
•router “signaling”

Link layer

physical layer

4-29
Chapter 4: Network Layer
 4. 1 Introduction  4.5 Routing algorithms
 4.2 Virtual circuit and  Link state
 Distance Vector
datagram networks
 Hierarchical routing
 4.3 What’s inside a
router  4.6 Routing in the
 4.4 IP: Internet Internet
 RIP
Protocol
 OSPF
 Datagram format
 BGP
 IPv4 addressing
 4.7 Broadcast and
 ICMP
 IPv6 multicast routing

4-30
 IP datagram format
IP protocol version 32 bits
number total datagram
header length type of length (bytes)
ver head. length
(bytes) len service for
“type” of data fragment fragmentation/
16-bit identifier flgs
offset reassembly
max number time to upper Internet
remaining hops live layer checksum
(decremented at
32 bit source IP address
each router)
32 bit destination IP address
upper layer protocol
to deliver payload to Options (if any) E.g. timestamp,
record route
how much overhead data taken, specify
with TCP? (variable length, list of routers
 20 bytes of TCP typically a TCP to visit.
 20 bytes of IP or UDP segment)
 = 40 bytes + app
layer overhead
4-31
 IP Fragmentation & Reassembly
 network links have MTU
(max.transfer size) - largest
possible link-level frame.
 different link types,
fragmentation:
different MTUs in: one large datagram
 large IP datagram divided out: 3 smaller datagrams
(“fragmented”) within net
 one datagram becomes
several datagrams
reassembly
 “reassembled” only at final
destination
 IP header bits used to
identify, order related
fragments

4-32
 IP Fragmentation and Reassembly
length ID fragflag offset
Example =4000 =x =0 =0
 4000 byte
One large datagram becomes
datagram several smaller datagrams
 MTU = 1500 bytes

length ID fragflag offset

=1500 =x =1 =0
1480 bytes in
data field length ID fragflag offset
=1500 =x =1 =185
offset =
1480/8 length ID fragflag offset
=1040 =x =0 =370

4-33
Chapter 4: Network Layer
 4. 1 Introduction  4.5 Routing algorithms
 4.2 Virtual circuit and  Link state
 Distance Vector
datagram networks
 Hierarchical routing
 4.3 What’s inside a
router  4.6 Routing in the
 4.4 IP: Internet Internet
 RIP
Protocol
 OSPF
 Datagram format
 BGP
 IPv4 addressing
 4.7 Broadcast and
 ICMP
 IPv6 multicast routing

4-34
IP Addressing: introduction
 IP address: 32-bit 223.1.1.1

identifier for host, 223.1.2.1

223.1.1.2
router interface 223.1.1.4 223.1.2.9
 interface: connection
223.1.2.2
between host/router 223.1.1.3 223.1.3.27

and physical link

 router’s typically have
multiple interfaces 223.1.3.1 223.1.3.2
 host typically has one
interface
 IP addresses
associated with each 223.1.1.1 = 11011111 00000001 00000001 00000001
interface
223 1 1 1

4-35
Subnets
 IP address: 223.1.1.1

 subnet part (high 223.1.2.1

223.1.1.2
order bits) 223.1.1.4 223.1.2.9
 host part (low order
bits) 223.1.1.3
223.1.2.2
223.1.3.27
 What’s a subnet ?
subnet
 device interfaces with
same subnet part of IP 223.1.3.1 223.1.3.2
address
 can physically reach
each other without
network consisting of 3 subnets
intervening router

4-36
Subnets 223.1.1.0/24
223.1.2.0/24

Recipe
 To determine the
subnets, detach each
interface from its
host or router,
creating islands of
isolated networks.
Each isolated network
is called a subnet. 223.1.3.0/24

Subnet mask: /24

4-37
Subnets 223.1.1.2

How many? 223.1.1.1 223.1.1.4

223.1.1.3

223.1.9.2 223.1.7.0

223.1.9.1 223.1.7.1
223.1.8.1 223.1.8.0

223.1.2.6 223.1.3.27

223.1.2.1 223.1.2.2 223.1.3.1 223.1.3.2

4-38
IP addressing: CIDR
CIDR: Classless InterDomain Routing
 subnet portion of address of arbitrary length
 address format: a.b.c.d/x, where x is # bits in
subnet portion of address

subnet host
part part
11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000
200.23.16.0/23
4-39
IP addresses: how to get one?

Q: How does host get IP address?

 hard-coded by system admin in a file

 Wintel: control-panel->network->configuration->tcp/ip-
>properties
 UNIX: /etc/rc.config
 DHCP: Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol: dynamically get
address from server
 “plug-and-play”

(more in next chapter)

4-40
IP addresses: how to get one?
Q: How does network get subnet part of IP
addr?
A: gets allocated portion of its provider ISP’s
address space

ISP's block 11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000 200.23.16.0/20

Organization 0 11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000 200.23.16.0/23

Organization 1 11001000 00010111 00010010 00000000 200.23.18.0/23
Organization 2 11001000 00010111 00010100 00000000 200.23.20.0/23
... ….. …. ….
Organization 7 11001000 00010111 00011110 00000000 200.23.30.0/23

4-41
Question
 Alice’s IP Add: 121.36.6.13
 Bob’s IP Add: 121.36.7.18

True or False?
Alice and Bob are in different subnets.

4-42
Hierarchical addressing: route aggregation
Hierarchical addressing allows efficient advertisement of routing
information:

Organization 0 Note This

200.23.16.0/23
Organization 1
“Send me anything
200.23.18.0/23 with addresses
Organization 2 beginning
200.23.20.0/23 . Fly-By-Night-ISP 200.23.16.0/20”
.
. . Internet
.
Organization 7 .
200.23.30.0/23
“Send me anything
ISPs-R-Us
with addresses
beginning
199.31.0.0/16”

4-43
Hierarchical addressing: more specific
routes
ISPs-R-Us has a more specific route to Organization 1
Organization 0
200.23.16.0/23

“Send me anything
with addresses
Organization 2 beginning
200.23.20.0/23 . Fly-By-Night-ISP 200.23.16.0/20”
.
. . Internet
.
Organization 7 .
200.23.30.0/23
“Send me anything
ISPs-R-Us
with addresses
Organization 1 beginning 199.31.0.0/16
or 200.23.18.0/23”
200.23.18.0/23

4-44
IP addressing: the last word...

Q: How does an ISP get block of addresses?

A: ICANN: Internet Corporation for Assigned
Names and Numbers
 allocates addresses
 manages DNS
 assigns domain names, resolves disputes

4-45
 NAT: Network Address Translation

rest of local network

Internet (e.g., home network)
10.0.0/24 10.0.0.1

10.0.0.4
10.0.0.2
138.76.29.7

10.0.0.3

All datagrams leaving local Datagrams with source or

network have same single source destination in this network
NAT IP address: 138.76.29.7, have 10.0.0/24 address for
different source port numbers source, destination (as usual)

4-46
 NAT: Network Address Translation
 Motivation: local network uses just one IP address as
far as outside world is concerned:
 range of addresses not needed from ISP: just one
IP address for all devices
 can change addresses of devices in local network
without notifying outside world
 can change ISP without changing addresses of
devices in local network
 devices inside local net NOT explicitly addressable,
visible by outside world (a security plus).

4-47
 NAT: Network Address Translation
Implementation: NAT router must:

 outgoing datagrams: replace (source IP address, port #)

of every outgoing datagram to (NAT IP address, new
port #)
. . . remote clients/servers will respond using (NAT IP
address, new port #) as destination addr.
 remember (in NAT translation table) every (source IP
address, port #) to (NAT IP address, new port #)
translation pair
 incoming datagrams: replace (NAT IP address, new port
#) in dest fields of every incoming datagram with
corresponding (source IP address, port #) stored in
NAT table
4-48
 NAT: Network Address Translation
NAT translation table
2: NAT router 1: host 10.0.0.1
WAN side addr LAN side addr
changes datagram sends datagram to
138.76.29.7, 5001 10.0.0.1, 3345 128.119.40.186, 80
source addr from
…… ……
10.0.0.1, 3345 to
138.76.29.7, 5001, S: 10.0.0.1, 3345
updates table D: 128.119.40.186, 80
10.0.0.1
1
S: 138.76.29.7, 5001
2 D: 128.119.40.186, 80 10.0.0.4
10.0.0.2
138.76.29.7 S: 128.119.40.186, 80
D: 10.0.0.1, 3345 4
S: 128.119.40.186, 80
D: 138.76.29.7, 5001 3 10.0.0.3
4: NAT router
3: Reply arrives changes datagram
dest. address: dest addr from
138.76.29.7, 5001 138.76.29.7, 5001 to 10.0.0.1, 3345

4-49
NAT: Network Address Translation

 16-bit port-number field:

 60,000 simultaneous connections with a single
LAN-side address!
 NAT is controversial:
 routers should only process up to layer 3
 violates end-to-end argument
• NAT possibility must be taken into account by app
designers, eg, P2P applications
 address shortage should instead be solved by
IPv6

4-50
Chapter 4: Network Layer
 4. 1 Introduction  4.5 Routing algorithms
 4.2 Virtual circuit and  Link state
 Distance Vector
datagram networks
 Hierarchical routing
 4.3 What’s inside a
router  4.6 Routing in the
 4.4 IP: Internet Internet
 RIP
Protocol
 OSPF
 Datagram format
 BGP
 IPv4 addressing
 4.7 Broadcast and
 ICMP
 IPv6 multicast routing

4-51
ICMP: Internet Control Message Protocol

 used by hosts & routers to

communicate network-level Type Code description
information 0 0 echo reply (ping)
3 0 dest. network unreachable
 error reporting:
3 1 dest host unreachable
unreachable host, network, 3 2 dest protocol unreachable
port, protocol 3 3 dest port unreachable
 echo request/reply (used
3 6 dest network unknown
by ping) 3 7 dest host unknown
 network-layer “above” IP: 4 0 source quench (congestion
 ICMP msgs carried in IP control - not used)
datagrams 8 0 echo request (ping)
 ICMP message: type, code plus 9 0 route advertisement
10 0 router discovery
first 8 bytes of IP datagram
11 0 TTL expired
causing error
12 0 bad IP header

4-52
Traceroute and ICMP
 Source sends series of  When ICMP message
UDP segments to dest arrives, source calculates
 First has TTL =1 RTT
 Second has TTL=2, etc.  Traceroute does this 3
times
 When nth datagram arrives Stopping criterion
to nth router:  UDP segment eventually
 Router discards datagram arrives at destination host
 And sends to source an  Destination returns ICMP
ICMP message (type 11, “host unreachable” packet
code 0)
(type 3, code 3)
 Message includes name of  When source gets this
router& IP address
ICMP, stops.

4-53
Chapter 4: Network Layer
 4. 1 Introduction  4.5 Routing algorithms
 4.2 Virtual circuit and  Link state
 Distance Vector
datagram networks
 Hierarchical routing
 4.3 What’s inside a
router  4.6 Routing in the
 4.4 IP: Internet Internet
 RIP
Protocol
 OSPF
 Datagram format
 BGP
 IPv4 addressing
 4.7 Broadcast and
 ICMP
 IPv6 multicast routing

4-54
 IPv6
 Initial motivation: 32-bit address space soon
to be completely allocated.
 Additional motivation:
 header format helps speed processing/forwarding
 header changes to facilitate QoS

IPv6 datagram format:

 fixed-length 40 byte header
 no fragmentation allowed

4-55
IPv6 Header (Cont)
Priority: identify priority among datagrams in flow
Flow Label: identify datagrams in same “flow.”
(concept of“flow” not well defined).
Next header: identify upper layer protocol for data

4-56
Other Changes from IPv4
 Checksum: removed entirely to reduce
processing time at each hop
 Options: allowed, but outside of header,
indicated by “Next Header” field
 ICMPv6: new version of ICMP
 additionalmessage types, e.g. “Packet Too Big”
 multicast group management functions

4-57
Transition From IPv4 To IPv6
 Not all routers can be upgraded simultaneous
 no “flag days”
 How will the network operate with mixed IPv4 and
IPv6 routers?
 Tunneling: IPv6 carried as payload in IPv4
datagram among IPv4 routers

4-58
Tunneling
A B E F
Logical view: tunnel

IPv6 IPv6 IPv6 IPv6

A B E F
Physical view:
IPv6 IPv6 IPv4 IPv4 IPv6 IPv6

4-59
Tunneling
A B E F
Logical view: tunnel

IPv6 IPv6 IPv6 IPv6

A B C D E F
Physical view:
IPv6 IPv6 IPv4 IPv4 IPv6 IPv6

Flow: X Src:B Src:B Flow: X

Src: A Dest: E Dest: E Src: A
Dest: F Dest: F
Flow: X Flow: X
Src: A Src: A
data Dest: F Dest: F data

data data

A-to-B: E-to-F:
B-to-C: B-to-C:
IPv6 IPv6
IPv6 inside IPv6 inside
IPv4 IPv4
4-60
Chapter 4: Network Layer
 4. 1 Introduction  4.5 Routing algorithms
 4.2 Virtual circuit and  Link state
 Distance Vector
datagram networks
 Hierarchical routing
 4.3 What’s inside a
router  4.6 Routing in the
 4.4 IP: Internet Internet
 RIP
Protocol
 OSPF
 Datagram format
 BGP
 IPv4 addressing
 4.7 Broadcast and
 ICMP
 IPv6 multicast routing

4-61
Interplay between routing, forwarding

routing algorithm

local forwarding table

header value output link
0100 3
0101 2
0111 2
1001 1

value in arriving
packet’s header
0111 1

3 2

4-62
Graph abstraction
5
3
v w 5
2
u 2 1 z
3
1 2
Graph: G = (N,E)
x 1
y

N = set of routers = { u, v, w, x, y, z }

E = set of links ={ (u,v), (u,x), (v,x), (v,w), (x,w), (x,y), (w,y), (w,z), (y,z) }

Remark: Graph abstraction is useful in other network contexts

Example: P2P, where N is set of peers and E is set of TCP connections

4-63
Graph abstraction: costs
5
• c(x,x’) = cost of link (x,x’)
3
v w 5
2 - e.g., c(w,z) = 5
u 2 1 z
3 • cost could always be 1, or
1 2 inversely related to bandwidth,
x 1
y
or inversely related to
congestion

Cost of path (x1, x2, x3,…, xp) = c(x1,x2) + c(x2,x3) + … + c(xp-1,xp)

Question: What’s the least-cost path between u and z ?

Routing algorithm: algorithm that finds least-cost path

4-64
Routing Algorithm classification
Global or decentralized Static or dynamic?
information?
Static:
Global:
 all routers have complete
 routes change slowly
topology, link cost info over time
 “link state” algorithms Dynamic:
Decentralized:  routes change more
 router knows physically-
quickly
connected neighbors, link
costs to neighbors  periodic update
 iterative process of  in response to link
computation, exchange of
cost changes
info with neighbors
 “distance vector” algorithms

4-65
Chapter 4: Network Layer
 4. 1 Introduction  4.5 Routing algorithms
 4.2 Virtual circuit and  Link state
 Distance Vector
datagram networks
 Hierarchical routing
 4.3 What’s inside a
router  4.6 Routing in the
 4.4 IP: Internet Internet
 RIP
Protocol
 OSPF
 Datagram format
 BGP
 IPv4 addressing
 4.7 Broadcast and
 ICMP
 IPv6 multicast routing

4-66
A Link-State Routing Algorithm

Dijkstra’s algorithm Notation:

 net topology, link costs  c(x,y): link cost from node
known to all nodes x to y; = ∞ if not direct
 accomplished via “link neighbors
state broadcast”  D(v): current value of cost
 all nodes have same info
of path from source to
 computes least cost paths dest. v
from one node (‘source”) to  p(v): predecessor node
all other nodes along path from source to v
 gives forwarding table
 N': set of nodes whose
for that node
least cost path definitively
 iterative: after k
known
iterations, know least cost
path to k dest.’s
4-67
Dijsktra’s Algorithm
1 Initialization:
2 N' = {u}
3 for all nodes v
4 if v adjacent to u
5 then D(v) = c(u,v)
6 else D(v) = ∞
7
8 Loop
9 find w not in N' such that D(w) is a minimum
10 add w to N'
11 update D(v) for all v adjacent to w and not in N' :
12 D(v) = min( D(v), D(w) + c(w,v) )
13 /* new cost to v is either old cost to v or known
14 shortest path cost to w plus cost from w to v */
15 until all nodes in N'

4-68
 Dijkstra’s algorithm: example
Step N' D(v),p(v) D(w),p(w) D(x),p(x) D(y),p(y) D(z),p(z)
0 u 2,u 5,u 1,u ∞ ∞
1 ux 2,u 4,x 2,x ∞
2 uxy 2,u 3,y 4,y
3 uxyv 3,y 4,y
4 uxyvw 4,y
5 uxyvwz

5
3
v w 5
2
u 2 1 z
3
1 2
x 1
y

4-69
 Dijkstra’s algorithm: example
Step N' D(v),p(v) D(w),p(w) D(x),p(x) D(y),p(y) D(z),p(z)
0 u 2,u 5,u 1,u ∞ ∞
1 ux 2,u 4,x 2,x ∞
2 uxy 2,u 3,y 4,y
3 uxyv 3,y 4,y
4 uxyvw 4,y
5 uxyvwz

5
3
v w 5
2
u 2 1 z
3
1 2
x 1
y

4-70
 Dijkstra’s algorithm: example
Step N' D(v),p(v) D(w),p(w) D(x),p(x) D(y),p(y) D(z),p(z)
0 u 2,u 5,u 1,u ∞ ∞
1 ux 2,u 4,x 2,x ∞
2 uxy 2,u 3,y 4,y
3 uxyv 3,y 4,y
4 uxyvw 4,y
5 uxyvwz

5
3
v w 5
2
u 2 1 z
3
1 2
x 1
y

4-71
 Dijkstra’s algorithm: example
Step N' D(v),p(v) D(w),p(w) D(x),p(x) D(y),p(y) D(z),p(z)
0 u 2,u 5,u 1,u ∞ ∞
1 ux 2,u 4,x 2,x ∞
2 uxy 2,u 3,y 4,y
3 uxyv 3,y 4,y
4 uxyvw 4,y
5 uxyvwz

5
3
v w 5
2
u 2 1 z
3
1 2
x 1
y

4-72
 Dijkstra’s algorithm: example
Step N' D(v),p(v) D(w),p(w) D(x),p(x) D(y),p(y) D(z),p(z)
0 u 2,u 5,u 1,u ∞ ∞
1 ux 2,u 4,x 2,x ∞
2 uxy 2,u 3,y 4,y
3 uxyv 3,y 4,y
4 uxyvw 4,y
5 uxyvwz

5
3
v w 5
2
u 2 1 z
3
1 2
x 1
y

4-73
 Dijkstra’s algorithm: example
Step N' D(v),p(v) D(w),p(w) D(x),p(x) D(y),p(y) D(z),p(z)
0 u 2,u 5,u 1,u ∞ ∞
1 ux 2,u 4,x 2,x ∞
2 uxy 2,u 3,y 4,y
3 uxyv 3,y 4,y
4 uxyvw 4,y
5 uxyvwz

5
3
v w 5
2
u 2 1 z
3
1 2
x 1
y

4-74
Dijkstra’s algorithm: example (2)
Resulting shortest-path tree from u:

v w
u z
x y

Resulting forwarding table in u:

destination link
v (u,v)
x (u,x)
y (u,x)
w (u,x)
z (u,x)
4-75
 Dijkstra’s algorithm, discussion
Algorithm complexity: n nodes
 each iteration: need to check all nodes, w, not in N
 n(n+1)/2 comparisons: O(n2)
 more efficient implementations possible: O(nlogn)

Oscillations possible:
 e.g., link cost = amount of carried traffic

A In reality, link cost =f(traffic

Aon link)
1 1+e 2+e A 0 0 2+e 2+e A
0
D 0 0 B D 1+e 1 B D 0 0 B D 1+e 1 B
0 e Does
0 that0lead to a problem?
1 1+e 0 e
1
C C C C
1
e
… recompute … recompute … recompute
initially
routing
4-76
Chapter 4: Network Layer
 4. 1 Introduction  4.5 Routing algorithms
 4.2 Virtual circuit and  Link state
 Distance Vector
datagram networks
 Hierarchical routing
 4.3 What’s inside a
router  4.6 Routing in the
 4.4 IP: Internet Internet
 RIP
Protocol
 OSPF
 Datagram format
 BGP
 IPv4 addressing
 4.7 Broadcast and
 ICMP
 IPv6 multicast routing

4-77
Distance Vector Algorithm
Bellman-Ford Equation (dynamic programming)
Define
dx(y) := cost of least-cost path from x to y

Then

dx(y) = min
v {c(x,v) + dv(y) }

where min is taken over all neighbors v of x

4-78
Bellman-Ford example
5
3
Clearly, dv(z) = 5, dx(z) = 3, dw(z) = 3
v w 5
2
u 2 1 z B-F equation says:
3
1 du(z) = min { c(u,v) + dv(z),
2
1
xy
c(u,x) + dx(z),
c(u,w) + dw(z) }
= min {2 + 5,
1 + 3,
5 + 3} = 4
Node that achieves minimum is next
hop in shortest path ➜ forwarding table
4-79
Distance Vector Algorithm
 Dx(y) = estimate of least cost from x to y
 Distance vector: Dx = [Dx(y): y є N ]
 Node x knows cost to each neighbor v: c(x,v)
 Node x maintains Dx = [Dx(y): y є N ]
 Node x also maintains its neighbors’ distance
vectors
 For each neighbor v, x maintains
Dv = [Dv(y): y є N ]

4-80
 Distance vector algorithm (4)
Basic idea:
 Each node periodically sends its own distance
vector estimate to neighbors
 When a node x receives new DV estimate from
neighbor, it updates its own DV using B-F equation:

Dx(y) ← minv{c(x,v) + Dv(y)} for each node y ∊ N

 Under minor, natural conditions, the estimate D (y)

x
converge to the actual least cost dx(y)

4-81
Distance Vector Algorithm (5)
Iterative, asynchronous: Each node:
each local iteration caused
by:
 local link cost change wait for (change in local link
 DV update message from cost of msg from neighbor)
neighbor
Distributed: recompute estimates
 each node notifies
neighbors only when its DV
changes if DV to any dest has
 neighbors then notify changed, notify neighbors
their neighbors if
necessary

Does this mean a network flood

every time a link cost changes? 4-82
 Dx(y) = min{c(x,y) + Dy(y), c(x,z) + Dz(y)} Dx(z) = min{c(x,y) +
= min{2+0 , 7+1} = 2 Dy(z), c(x,z) + Dz(z)}
node x table = min{2+1 , 7+0} = 3
cost to cost to cost to
x y z x y z x y z
x 0 2 7 x 0 2 3 x 0 2 3
from

from

from
y ∞∞ ∞ y 2 0 1 y 2 0 1
z ∞∞ ∞ z 7 1 0 z 3 1 0
node y table
cost to cost to cost to
x y z x y z x y z y
2 1
x ∞ ∞ ∞ x 0 2 7 x 0 2 3 x z
from
from

from
y 2 0 1 y 2 0 1 y 2 0 1 7
z ∞∞ ∞ z 7 1 0 z 3 1 0
node z table
cost to cost to cost to
x y z x y z x y z
x ∞∞ ∞ x 0 2 7 x 0 2 3
from

from
from

y ∞∞ ∞ y 2 0 1 y 2 0 1
z 71 0 z 3 1 0 z 3 1 0
time
4-83
 Distance Vector: link cost changes
Link cost changes: 1
 node detects local link cost change y
4 1
 updates routing info, recalculates
x z
distance vector 50
 if DV changes, notify neighbors

At time t0, y detects the link-cost change, updates its DV,

and informs its neighbors.
“good
news At time t1, z receives the update from y and updates its table.
travels It computes a new least cost to x and sends its neighbors its DV.

fast” At time t2, y receives z’s update and updates its distance table.
y’s least costs do not change and hence y does not send any
message to z.

4-84
Distance Vector: link cost changes

60
y
4 1

x z
50

What happens now ?

4-85
Distance Vector: link cost changes
Link cost changes:
60
 good news travels fast y
4 1
 bad news travels slow -
x z
“count to infinity” problem! 50
 44 iterations before
algorithm stabilizes: see
text
Poissoned reverse:
 If Z routes through Y to
get to X :
 Z tells Y its (Z’s) distance
to X is infinite (so Y won’t
route to X via Z)
 will this completely solve
count to infinity problem?
4-86
Tradeoffs

What will you recommend ?

Link State?
Distance Vector?

There is no right answer

4-87
Comparison of LS and DV algorithms
Message complexity Robustness: what happens
 LS: with n nodes, E links, if router malfunctions?
O(nE) msgs sent LS:
 DV: exchange between
 node can advertise
neighbors only incorrect link cost
 convergence time varies
 each node computes only
its own table
Speed of Convergence
 LS: O(n2) algorithm requires DV:
O(nE) msgs  DV node can advertise
 may have oscillations incorrect path cost
 DV: convergence time varies  each node’s table used by
 may be routing loops
others
• error propagate thru
 count-to-infinity problem
network

4-88
Chapter 4: Network Layer
 4. 1 Introduction  4.5 Routing algorithms
 4.2 Virtual circuit and  Link state
 Distance Vector
datagram networks
 Hierarchical routing
 4.3 What’s inside a
router  4.6 Routing in the
 4.4 IP: Internet Internet
 RIP
Protocol
 OSPF
 Datagram format
 BGP
 IPv4 addressing
 4.7 Broadcast and
 ICMP
 IPv6 multicast routing

4-89
Hierarchical Routing
Our routing study thus far - idealization
 all routers identical
 network “flat”
… not true in practice

scale: with 200 million administrative autonomy

destinations:  internet = network of
 can’t store all dest’s in networks
routing tables!  each network admin may
 routing table exchange want to control routing in its
would swamp links! own network

4-90
Hierarchical Routing
 aggregate routers into
Gateway router
regions, “autonomous  Direct link to router in
systems” (AS)
another AS
 routers in same AS
run same routing
protocol
 “intra-AS” routing
protocol
 routers in different AS
can run different intra-
AS routing protocol

4-91
Interconnected ASes

3c
3a 2c
3b 2a
AS3 2b
1c AS2
1a 1b
1d AS1  Forwarding table is
configured by both
intra- and inter-AS
routing algorithm
Intra-AS Inter-AS
Routing Routing
algorithm algorithm
 Intra-AS sets entries
Forwarding for internal dests
table
 Inter-AS & Intra-As
sets entries for
external dests
4-92
Inter-AS tasks AS1 needs:
 Suppose router in AS1 1. to learn which dests
receives datagram for are reachable through
which dest is outside AS2 and which
of AS1 through AS3
 Router should forward 2. to propagate this
packet towards one of
reachability info to all
the gateway routers,
but which one? routers in AS1
Job of inter-AS routing!

3c
3a 2c
3b 2a
AS3 2b
1c AS2
1a 1b
1d AS1
4-93
Set forwarding table in router 1d
Subnet X
3c
3a 2c
3b 2a
AS3 2b
1c AS2
1a 1b
1d AS1

 Suppose AS1 learns from the inter-AS protocol that

subnet x is reachable from AS3 (gateway 1c) but not
from AS2.
 Inter-AS protocol propagates reachability info to all
internal routers.
 Router 1d determines from intra-AS routing info that
its interface I is on the least cost path to 1c.
 Puts in forwarding table entry (x,I).
4-94
Example: Choosing among multiple ASes
 Now suppose AS1 learns from the inter-AS protocol
that subnet x is reachable from AS3 and from AS2.
 To configure forwarding table, router 1d must
determine towards which gateway it should forward
packets for dest x.
 This is also the job on inter-AS routing protocol!
 Hot potato routing: send packet towards closest of
two routers.

Use routing info Determine from

Learn from inter-AS Hot potato routing: forwarding table the
from intra-AS
protocol that subnet Choose the interface I that leads
protocol to
x is reachable via gateway to least-cost gateway.
determine
multiple gateways that has the Enter (x,I) in
costs of least-cost
smallest least cost forwarding table
paths to each
of the gateways
Optimal?
4-95
Chapter 4: Network Layer
 4. 1 Introduction  4.5 Routing algorithms
 4.2 Virtual circuit and  Link state
 Distance Vector
datagram networks
 Hierarchical routing
 4.3 What’s inside a
router  4.6 Routing in the
 4.4 IP: Internet Internet
 RIP
Protocol
 OSPF
 Datagram format
 BGP
 IPv4 addressing
 4.7 Broadcast and
 ICMP
 IPv6 multicast routing

4-96
Intra-AS Routing
 Also known as Interior Gateway Protocols (IGP)
 Most common Intra-AS routing protocols:

 RIP: Routing Information Protocol

 OSPF: Open Shortest Path First

 IGRP: Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (Cisco

proprietary)

4-97
Chapter 4: Network Layer
 4. 1 Introduction  4.5 Routing algorithms
 4.2 Virtual circuit and  Link state
 Distance Vector
datagram networks
 Hierarchical routing
 4.3 What’s inside a
router  4.6 Routing in the
 4.4 IP: Internet Internet
 RIP
Protocol
 OSPF
 Datagram format
 BGP
 IPv4 addressing
 4.7 Broadcast and
 ICMP
 IPv6 multicast routing

4-98
RIP ( Routing Information Protocol)
 Distance vector algorithm
 Included in BSD-UNIX Distribution in 1982
 Distance metric: # of hops (max = 15 hops)

From router A to subsets:

u destination hops
v
u 1
A B w v 2
w 2
x 3
x y 3
z C D z 2
y

4-99
RIP advertisements
 Distance vectors: exchanged among
neighbors every 30 sec via Response
Message (also called advertisement)
 Each advertisement: list of up to 25
destination nets within AS

4-100
RIP: Example
z
w x y
A D B

C
Routing
Routing table
table in
in D
D
Destination Network Next Router Num. of hops to dest.
w A 2
y B 2
z B 7
x -- 1
…. …. ....

4-101
 RIP: Example
Dest Next hops
w - 1 Advertisement
x - 1 from A to D
z C 4
…. … ...
z
w x y
A D B

C
Destination Network Next Router Num. of hops to dest.
w A 2
y B 2
z B A 7 5
x -- 1
…. …. ....
Routing table in D 4-102
RIP: Link Failure and Recovery
If no advertisement heard after 180 sec -->
neighbor/link declared dead
 routes via neighbor invalidated
 new advertisements sent to neighbors
 neighbors in turn send out new advertisements (if
tables changed)
 link failure info quickly propagates to entire net
 poison reverse used to prevent ping-pong loops
(infinite distance = 16 hops)

4-103
RIP Table processing
 RIP routing tables managed by application-level
process called route-d (daemon)
 advertisements sent in UDP packets, periodically
repeated
routed routed

Transprt Transprt
(UDP) (UDP)
network forwarding forwarding network
(IP) table table (IP)
link link
physical physical

4-104
Chapter 4: Network Layer
 4. 1 Introduction  4.5 Routing algorithms
 4.2 Virtual circuit and  Link state
 Distance Vector
datagram networks
 Hierarchical routing
 4.3 What’s inside a
router  4.6 Routing in the
 4.4 IP: Internet Internet
 RIP
Protocol
 OSPF
 Datagram format
 BGP
 IPv4 addressing
 4.7 Broadcast and
 ICMP
 IPv6 multicast routing

4-105
OSPF (Open Shortest Path First)
 “open”: publicly available
 Uses Link State algorithm
 LS packet dissemination
 Topology map at each node
 Route computation using Dijkstra’s algorithm

 OSPF advertisement carries one entry per neighbor

router
 Advertisements disseminated to entire AS (via
flooding)
 Carried in OSPF messages directly over IP (rather than TCP
or UDP

4-106
OSPF “advanced” features (not in RIP)

 Security: all OSPF messages authenticated (to

prevent malicious intrusion)
 Multiple same-cost paths allowed (only one path in
RIP)
 For each link, multiple cost metrics for different
TOS (e.g., satellite link cost set “low” for best
effort; high for real time)
 Integrated uni- and multicast support:
 Multicast OSPF (MOSPF) uses same topology data
base as OSPF
 Hierarchical OSPF in large domains.
4-107
Hierarchical OSPF

4-108
Hierarchical OSPF
 Two-level hierarchy: local area, backbone.
 Link-state advertisements only in area
 each nodes has detailed area topology; only know
direction (shortest path) to nets in other areas.

 Area border routers: “summarize” distances to nets

in own area, advertise to other Area Border routers.
 Backbone routers: run OSPF routing limited to
backbone.
 Boundary routers: connect to other AS’s.

4-109
Chapter 4: Network Layer
 4. 1 Introduction  4.5 Routing algorithms
 4.2 Virtual circuit and  Link state
 Distance Vector
datagram networks
 Hierarchical routing
 4.3 What’s inside a
router  4.6 Routing in the
 4.4 IP: Internet Internet
 RIP
Protocol
 OSPF
 Datagram format
 BGP
 IPv4 addressing
 4.7 Broadcast and
 ICMP
 IPv6 multicast routing

4-110
Internet inter-AS routing: BGP
 BGP (Border Gateway Protocol): the de
facto standard
 BGP provides each AS a means to:
1. Obtain subnet reachability information from
neighboring ASs.
2. Propagate the reachability information to all
routers internal to the AS.
3. Determine “good” routes to subnets based on
reachability information and policy.
 Allows a subnet to advertise its existence
to rest of the Internet: “I am here”

4-111
 BGP basics
 Pairs of routers (BGP peers) exchange routing info over semi-
permanent TCP conctns: BGP sessions
 Note that BGP sessions do not correspond to physical links.
 When AS2 advertises a prefix to AS1, AS2 is promising it will
forward any datagrams destined to that prefix towards the
prefix.
 AS2 can aggregate prefixes in its advertisement

3c
3a 2c
3b 2a
AS3 2b
1c AS2
1a 1b
AS1 1d
eBGP session
iBGP session
4-112
Distributing reachability info
 With eBGP session between 3a and 1c, AS3 sends prefix
reachability info to AS1.
 1c can then use iBGP do distribute this new prefix reach info
to all routers in AS1
 1b can then re-advertise the new reach info to AS2 over the
1b-to-2a eBGP session
 When router learns about a new prefix, it creates an entry
for the prefix in its forwarding table.

3c
3a 2c
3b 2a
AS3 2b
1c AS2
1a 1b
AS1 1d
eBGP session
iBGP session
4-113
Path attributes & BGP routes
 When advertising a prefix, advert includes BGP
attributes.
 prefix + attributes = “route”
 Two important attributes:
 AS-PATH: contains the ASs through which the advert
for the prefix passed: AS 67 AS 17
 NEXT-HOP: Indicates the specific internal-AS router to
next-hop AS. (There may be multiple links from current
AS to next-hop-AS.)
 When gateway router receives route advert, uses
import policy to accept/decline.

4-114
BGP route selection
 Router may learn about more than 1 route
to some prefix. Router must select route.
 Elimination rules:
1. Local preference value attribute: policy
decision
2. Shortest AS-PATH
3. Closest NEXT-HOP router: hot potato routing
4. Additional criteria

4-115
BGP messages
 BGP messages exchanged using TCP.
 BGP messages:
 OPEN: opens TCP connection to peer and
authenticates sender
 UPDATE: advertises new path (or withdraws old)
 KEEPALIVE keeps connection alive in absence of
UPDATES; also ACKs OPEN request
 NOTIFICATION: reports errors in previous msg;
also used to close connection

4-116
 BGP routing policy
legend: provider
B network
X
W A
customer
C network:

Figure 4.5-BGPnew: a simple BGP scenario

 A,B,C are provider networks
 X,W,Y are customer (of provider networks)
 X is dual-homed: attached to two networks
X does not want to route from B via X to C
 .. so X will not advertise to B a route to C

4-117
 BGP routing policy (2)
legend: provider
B network
X
W A
customer
C network:

Figure 4.5-BGPnew: a simple BGP scenario

 A advertises to B the path AW
 B advertises to X the path BAW
 Should B advertise to C the path BAW?
 No way! B gets no “revenue” for routing CBAW since neither
W nor C are B’s customers
 B wants to force C to route to w via A
 B wants to route only to/from its customers!

4-118
Why different Intra- and Inter-AS routing ?

Policy:
 Inter-AS: admin wants control over how its traffic
routed, who routes through its net.
 Intra-AS: single admin, so no policy decisions needed

Scale:
 hierarchical routing saves table size, reduced update
traffic
Performance:
 Intra-AS: can focus on performance
 Inter-AS: policy may dominate over performance

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Summary: Chapter 4: Network
Layer
 4. 1 Introduction  4.5 Routing algorithms
 Link state
 4.2 Virtual circuit and
 Distance Vector
datagram networks  Hierarchical routing
 4.3 What’s inside a
 4.6 Routing in the
router Internet
 4.4 IP: Internet  RIP
Protocol  OSPF
 Datagram format  BGP
 IPv4 addressing  4.7 Broadcast and
 ICMP multicast routing
 IPv6

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Questions?

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Chapter 4: Network Layer
 4. 1 Introduction  4.5 Routing algorithms
 Link state
 4.2 Virtual circuit and
 Distance Vector
datagram networks  Hierarchical routing
 4.3 What’s inside a
 4.6 Routing in the
router Internet
 4.4 IP: Internet  RIP
Protocol  OSPF
 Datagram format  BGP
 IPv4 addressing  4.7 Broadcast and
 ICMP multicast routing
 IPv6

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 Broadcast Routing
 Deliver packets from source to all other nodes
 Source duplication is inefficient:

duplicate
duplicate
R1 creation/transmission R1
duplicate
R2 R2

R3 R4 R3 R4

source in-network
duplication duplication

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In-network duplication
 Flooding: when node receives brdcst pckt,
sends copy to all neighbors
 Problems: cycles & broadcast storm
 Controlled flooding: node only brdcsts pkt
if it hasn’t brdcst same packet before
 Node keeps track of pckt ids already brdcsted
 Or reverse path forwarding (RPF): only forward
pckt if it arrived on shortest path between
node and source
 Spanning tree
 No redundant packets received by any node

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Spanning Tree
 First construct a spanning tree
 Nodes forward copies only along spanning
tree
A A

B B
c c

D D
F E F E

G G
(a) Broadcast initiated at A (b) Broadcast initiated at D

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Spanning Tree: Creation
 Center node
 Each node sends unicast join message to center node
 Message forwarded until it arrives at a node already belonging
to spanning tree

A A
3
B B
c c
4
2
D D
F E F E
1 5
G G
(a) Stepwise construction (b) Constructed spanning
of spanning tree tree
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Multicast Routing: Problem Statement
 Goal: find a tree (or trees) connecting routers having
local mcast group members
 tree: not all paths between routers used
 source-based: different tree from each sender to rcvrs
 shared-tree: same tree used by all group members

Shared tree Source-based trees

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Approaches for building mcast trees
Approaches:
 source-based tree: one tree per source
 shortest path trees
 reverse path forwarding

 group-shared tree: group uses one tree

 minimal spanning (Steiner)
 center-based trees

…we first look at basic approaches, then specific

protocols adopting these approaches

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Shortest Path Tree
 mcast forwarding tree: tree of shortest
path routes from source to all receivers
 Dijkstra’s algorithm

S: source LEGEND
R1 2
1 R4 router with attached
group member
R2 5
router with no attached
3 4
R5 group member
R3 6 i link used for forwarding,
R6 R7 i indicates order link
added by algorithm

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Reverse Path Forwarding

 rely on router’s knowledge of unicast

shortest path from it to sender
 each router has simple forwarding behavior:

if (mcast datagram received on incoming link on

shortest path back to center)
then flood datagram onto all outgoing links
else ignore datagram

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Reverse Path Forwarding: example
S: source
LEGEND
R1
R4 router with attached
group member
R2
router with no attached
R5 group member
R3 datagram will be
R6 R7 forwarded
datagram will not be
forwarded

• result is a source-specific reverse SPT

– may be a bad choice with asymmetric links

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Reverse Path Forwarding: pruning
 forwarding tree contains subtrees with no mcast
group members
 no need to forward datagrams down subtree
 “prune” msgs sent upstream by router with no
downstream group members

S: source LEGEND

R1 router with attached

R4
group member

R2 router with no attached

P group member
P
R5 prune message
R3 P links with multicast
R6 R7 forwarding

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Shared-Tree: Steiner Tree

 Steiner Tree: minimum cost tree

connecting all routers with attached group
members
 problem is NP-complete
 excellent heuristics exists
 not used in practice:
 computational complexity
 information about entire network needed
 monolithic: rerun whenever a router needs to
join/leave
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Center-based trees
 single delivery tree shared by all
 one router identified as “center” of tree
 to join:
 edge router sends unicast join-msg addressed
to center router
 join-msg “processed” by intermediate routers
and forwarded towards center
 join-msg either hits existing tree branch for
this center, or arrives at center
 path taken by join-msg becomes new branch of
tree for this router

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Center-based trees: an example

Suppose R6 chosen as center:

LEGEND

R1 router with attached

R4
3 group member

R2 router with no attached

2 group member
1
R5 path order in which join
messages generated
R3
1 R6 R7

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Internet Multicasting Routing: DVMRP
 DVMRP: distance vector multicast routing
protocol, RFC1075
 flood and prune: reverse path forwarding,
source-based tree
 RPF tree based on DVMRP’s own routing tables
constructed by communicating DVMRP routers
 no assumptions about underlying unicast
 initial datagram to mcast group flooded
everywhere via RPF
 routers not wanting group: send upstream prune
msgs

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DVMRP: continued…
 soft state: DVMRP router periodically (1 min.)
“forgets” branches are pruned:
 mcast data again flows down unpruned branch
 downstream router: reprune or else continue to
receive data
 routers can quickly regraft to tree
 following IGMP join at leaf

 odds and ends

 commonly implemented in commercial routers
 Mbone routing done using DVMRP

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Tunneling
Q: How to connect “islands” of multicast
routers in a “sea” of unicast routers?

physical topology logical topology

 mcast datagram encapsulated inside “normal” (non-multicast-

addressed) datagram
 normal IP datagram sent thru “tunnel” via regular IP unicast to
receiving mcast router
 receiving mcast router unencapsulates to get mcast datagram

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 PIM: Protocol Independent Multicast
 not dependent on any specific underlying unicast
routing algorithm (works with all)
 two different multicast distribution scenarios :

Dense: Sparse:
 group members  # networks with group
densely packed, in members small wrt #
“close” proximity. interconnected networks
 bandwidth more  group members “widely
plentiful dispersed”
 bandwidth not plentiful

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Consequences of Sparse-Dense Dichotomy:

Dense Sparse:
 group membership by  no membership until
routers assumed until routers explicitly join
routers explicitly prune  receiver- driven
 data-driven construction construction of mcast
on mcast tree (e.g., RPF) tree (e.g., center-based)
 bandwidth and non-  bandwidth and non-group-
group-router processing router processing
profligate conservative

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PIM- Dense Mode

flood-and-prune RPF, similar to DVMRP but

 underlying unicast protocol provides RPF info
for incoming datagram
 less complicated (less efficient) downstream
flood than DVMRP reduces reliance on
underlying routing algorithm
 has protocol mechanism for router to detect it
is a leaf-node router

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PIM - Sparse Mode
 center-based approach
 router sends join msg
to rendezvous point R1
R4
(RP) join
 intermediate routers R2
join
update state and
forward join R5
join
 after joining via RP, R3 R7
R6
router can switch to
source-specific tree all data multicast rendezvous
 increased performance: from rendezvous point
point
less concentration,
shorter paths
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PIM - Sparse Mode
sender(s):
 unicast data to RP,
which distributes down R1
R4
RP-rooted tree join
 RP can extend mcast R2
join
tree upstream to R5
source join
R3 R7
 RP can send stop msg R6
if no attached
all data multicast rendezvous
receivers from rendezvous point
 “no one is listening!” point

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 Network layer service models:
Guarantees ?
Network Service Congestion
Architecture Model Bandwidth Loss Order Timing feedback

Internet best effort none no no no no (inferred

via loss)
ATM CBR constant yes yes yes no
rate congestion
ATM VBR guaranteed yes yes yes no
rate congestion
ATM ABR guaranteed no yes no yes
minimum
ATM UBR none no yes no no

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