Basic Metallurgy New

Metallurgy
… Introduction
Materials
Ceramics
Plastics
Metals
metals
high strength
electrical conductivity
thermal conductivity
Metals
Ferrous
Carbon steels
Low carbon, medium carbon, high
carbon steels
Alloy steels
Nonferrous
Aluminium,copper
Properties
Strength - Room temp, High temp
Impact - Room temp, Low temp
Ductility
Corrosion resistance – General, pitting IGC,
SCC
Wear resistance
Erosion resistance
Properties
Metallurgical structure
Chemical composition
Steel making
Processing route
Heat treatment
Metallurgical structure
Type, proportion & Morphology of
microstructures
Grain size
Second phase particles – size , distribution
& morphology
Inclusions – Type ,size, volume fraction
Different structures
–Ferrite (bcc
–Austenite ( fcc
–Delta (bcc
–Iron carbide (Fe3C)
–Martensite
–Bainite
Micro structural Constituents in Steels
Ferrite - Pure iron, bcc iron with low carbon solubility
Pearlite - Grain structure resulting from a mechanical

combination of ferrite and cementite in layer formation
Austenite - grains of ferrite and pearlite change when

steel is heated to transformation temperature
Austenite will dissolve carbon and alloying elements
Martensite - Formed when carbon steel is rapidly cooled

by quenching. Untempered martensite is the hardest
and most brittle of the microstructures.
Crystal Structures
- Body centered cube

9 atoms: 8 at cube corners and 1
in the center
- Face centered cube

14 atoms: 8 at cube corners and
1 each on the six faces
Crystal Structures
• Cementite - Iron carbide Fe3C
chemical compound of iron and carbon
IRON-IRON CARBIDE PHASE DIAGRAM
• This diagram depicts, in a temperature vs.

composition plot, the regions of stability of
equilibrium phases
Iron-Carbon Phase Diagram
723 °C
0.2% C steel
•Heat to 927C - all austenite grains - called
austenitising temperature
•Cool to 815C - primary ferrite begins to
form at austenite grain boundaries
Metallurgical
(allotriomorphs transformations
& Widmanstatten plates)
•Further cooling causes more ferrite to form
and austenite to be enriched in carbon, until
at the eutectoid temperature ( 723C) the
remaining austenite transforms to pearlite,
a lamellar mixture of ferrite and carbide
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•Rapid cooling suppresses primary
ferrite formation and results in finer
lamellar spacing in pearlite
Metallurgical transformations
•By holding at temperatures just
below the eutectoid temperature (say,
at 710C) the lamellar structure will
spherodise, yielding better ductility
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1.0% C steel
• Heat to 890C -- all austenite grains
• Cool to 660C, primary carbide forms at
austenite grain boundaries
• At theMetallurgical
eutectoid temperature, the remaining
transformations
austenite transforms to pearlite.
• Primary carbide can be suppressed by rapid
cooling.
• Pearlite can be spheroidised by holding at
temperatures just below the eutectoid
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ISOTHERMAL TRANSFORMATION OF AUSTENITE
• TTT Daigram
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ISOTHERMAL TRANSFORMATION OF AUSTENITE
• By measuring length changes in a rod of steel
undergoing isothermal transformation
(dilatometry) or using hot stage microscope, it
is possible to determine the start and stop times
of the transformation
A partially completed isothermal transformation
curve for a 1080 (eutectoid) steel.
• Between 723C and about 540C austenite
transforms to pearlite
• Below 540C the ferrite + carbide
microstructure is no longer lamellar, but
changes to a feathery, acicular(needle-like)
structure, which is called Bainite
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ISOTHERMAL TRANSFORMATION OF
AUSTENITE
• Below about 215C, austenite transforms to a

product called Martensite.
• Martensite forms instantly ( 10-6 sec) as the
temperature drops below the martensite - start
temperature, Ms , which in this case is 215C
• At each temperature below Ms , only a fraction
of the austenite is transformed, until at the
martensite-finish temperature, M f , the
transformation is complete.
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21
ISOTHERMAL TRANSFORMATION OF
AUSTENITE
• When austenite transforms to martensite

the carbon in the austenite does not have
time to precipitate as iron carbide and
emains in solution while the austenite
transforms to a body-centered tetragonal
unit cell -- a strained bcc cell.
• Because of this martensite is a very hard,
low ductility product that increases in
hardness as the carbon content increases.
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Plain-Carbon Steels
• Properties depend on C content and thermo-
mechanical processing & the heat treatment the
steel has received.
• For low carbon contents less than 0.5%, increasing
the carbon content, increases the pearlite, and thus
the tensile and yield strengths. Cold drawing
improves the tensile and yield strengths.
• In the higher carbon range, 0.6-0.95 wt % the
pearlite has to be spheroidised in order to draw the
steel. Thus, drawing does not improve the tensile
strength, but does improve the yield strength.
• Usually, the higher strength, the lower elongation.23
24
Properties of Plain Carbon Steels
Carbon content wt % Properties Applications

Soft, ductile, no useful hardening by Pressings where high
0.01 - 0.1 heat treatment except by normalizing, formability required
but can be work-hardened. Weldable.
Strong, ductile, no useful hardening General engineering uses for a

0.1 - 0.25 by heat treatment except by mild steel
normalizing, but can be work-
hardened. Weldable.Ductile-brittle
transition temperature is just below
room temperature
Very strong, heat treatable to produce Bars and forgings for a wide
0.25 - 0.6 a wide range of properties in
quenched and tempered conditions.
range of engineering
components. Connecting rods,
Difficult to weld. Can become brittle springs, hammers, axle shafts
below room temperature. requiring strength and
toughness.
Properties of Plain Carbon Steels
Carbon content wt % Properties Applications
Strong, whether heat treated or Used where maximum

0.6 - 0.9 not. Ductility lower when less strength rather than
carbon is present toughness is important.
Tools, wear resisting
components ( piano wire
and silver steels are in this
group).
Wear resistant and can be made Cutting tools like wood
0.9 - 2.0 very hard at expense of toughness chisels, files, saw blades.
and ductility. Cannot be welded.
Tend to be brittle if the structure
is not carefully controlled
Strengthening mechanism
Solid solution
Interstitial solution
Precipitation
Grain refinement
Micro alloying
Controlled rolling
Accelerated cooling Accelerated
cooling & controlled rolling
QUENCHED & TEMPERED STEELS
• Quench and tempering is a treatment to harden steel
by quenching, followed by tempering to improve the
ductility of the steel.
• Three methods of carrying out Q&T treatments.
– Conventional tempering
– Martempering
– Austempering
• Conventional Tempering
– Austenitize at temperatures for 0.5 hrs.
– Oil quench to T below M f
– Reheat to 400F - 1000F for 1-10 hrs. to temper to desired
hardness
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QUENCHED & TEMPERED STEELS
• Martempering is used to avoid distortion and
cracking produced by conventional Q&T.
– Austenitize, as before
– Oil quench to T just above M f and hold to equalize
temperatures throughout the part
– Air cool to T< M f
– Temper, as before
• Austempering also avoids distortion
– Austenitize, as before
– Quench in salt bath to T> M s and hold until
austenite transforms to bainite and air cool
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High Strength Low Alloy Steels
• HSLA Steels were developed in the early 1970’s to
provide the automotive industry with weight
reduction opportunities in parts that are designed
primarily for strength rather than stiffness, e.g.,
front end, crushable beams for crashworthiness.
• Mild steel for body structures has yield strengths
near 30 ksi with % elongation near 50% for
excellent formability and a finish.
• On the other hand HSLA steels have yield strengths
in the range 40-60 ksi with lower elongations of
23%.
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High Strength Low Alloy Steels
• HSLA Steels derive their strength from a
combination of strengthening mechanisms;
– Solid solution strengthening elements
– Very fine grain size due to controlled rolling
with close temperature control
– Prevention of grain growth by “pinning” grain
boundaries with precipitated carbides of
vanadium or columbium.
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Line pipe steels
Grade C Mn S P
A25 Cl 0.21 0.30-0.60 0.030 0.030
A 0.22 0.90 0.030 0.030
B C Mn P S
0.27 1.15 0.030 0.030
X42 0.29 1.25 0.030 0.030
X46,X52 0.31 1.35 0.030 0.030
X42,X46,X52 0.25 1.25 0.030 0.030
X56,X60 0.26 1.35 0.030 0.030
X70 0.23 1.60 0.030 0.030
X80 0.18 1.80 0.030 0.018

Line pipe steels
Grade YS( MPa) UTS (MPa)
A25 172 310
A 207 331
C Mn P S
B 241 413
X42 281 413
X46 317 434
,X52 358 455
X60 413 517
X70 482 565
X80 551 620
line pipe steels
API 5L X 60
Process C Mn S P V Nb Al
Seamless 0.20 1.1 0.045 0.04 0.04 - -
0.25 1.4 0.06
SAW 0.17 1.35 0.035 0.035 - 0.03 -
0.21 1.45 0.035
High Freq.Res 0.15 1.1 0.035 0.04 0.06 - -
0.20 1.3 0.08
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Effects on Steel
Phosphorous: solution harden, corrosion resistance, better
machining
Silicon: removes oxygen, increases oxidation resistance,
strengthens low-alloy steels, decreases ductility
Titanium: forms carbides, age hardening possible, used in stainless
steel
Chromium: corrosion resistance (stainless steel), abrasion resistance
at high C, high temperature oxidation resistance, solution hardening
Nickel: used with Cr in stainless steel, low temp. strength, toughness
Cobalt: increases hardness at high temperature, solution hardening
Manganese: Sequesters S as MnS, improves machining
Molybdenum: MoC provide abrasion resistance, slows grain growth in
fcc material, improves corrosion resistance, improves hot strength…
Tungsten: Similar to Mo, delays tempering to higher temperatures
Vanadium: Slows fcc grain growth, delays softening, forms carbides
Iron-Carbon Phase Diagram
• Carbon is soluble in
austenite up to 2.11 wt.
% at 1148 deg C
whereas the carbon
solubility in ferrite is
only 0.022 wt. % at 723
deg C
• Eutectoid composition
is 0.8 wt % carbon
• Eutectic & Eutectoid 723 °C
Reactions
– Hypo-eutectoid and
Hyper - eutectoid
steels
– Microstructures
• A1 , A3, Acm
nomenclature
•Steel is a family of iron- iron
carbide (Fe3C) alloys, and other
alloying elements.
•In alloy steels, alloying elements are
deliberately added to make steels
hardenable/ achieve specific
properties.
723 °C
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V.ANBAZHAGAN,
Manager,WRI
Crystal Structures
- Body centered cubic (BCC)
- Face centered cubic (FCC)

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Metallurgy

Pearlite - Grain structure resulting from a mechanical

Austenite - grains of ferrite and pearlite change when

Martensite - Formed when carbon steel is rapidly cooled

- Body centered cube

- Face centered cube

• This diagram depicts, in a temperature vs.

• Below about 215C, austenite transforms to a

• When austenite transforms to martensite

Carbon content wt % Properties Applications

Strong, ductile, no useful hardening General engineering uses for a

Carbon content wt % Properties Applications

Strong, whether heat treated or Used where maximum

X80 0.18 1.80 0.030 0.018

- Face centered cubic (FCC)

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