Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

Signal Generators
& Wave Analyzers

T.S.S.Naga Pavan Kumar

 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

Contents Signal Generators

1. Fixed and Variable AF Oscillators
2. Basic and Standard Signal Generators
3. AF Sine and Square wave signal generators
4. Function Generators
5. Square and Pulse Wave Generators
6. Random Noise Generators
7. Sweep Generators, Arbitrary Waveform.
Wave Analyzers
8. Harmonic Distortion Analyzers
9. Spectrum Analyzers
10. Digital Fourier Analyzers.
TEXTBOOKS :
T.S.S.Naga Pavan Kumar Electronic Instrumentation, second edition - H.S.Kalsi, Tata McGraw Hill, 2004.
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

Signal Generators

T.S.S.Naga Pavan Kumar

 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

Signal Generators - Introduction

• A signal generator is a vital component

in a test setup, and in electronic
troubleshooting and development,
whether on a service bench or in a
research laboratory.
• They provide a variety of waveforms for
testing electronic circuits, usually at low
powers.

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 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

Signal Generators - Introduction

• There are various types of signal
generator, but several requirements
are common to all types.
1. The frequency of the signal
should be known and stable.
2. The amplitude should be
controllable from very small to
relatively large values.
3. Finally, the signal should be
distortion-free.
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 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

EM Spectrum

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 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

Basic Standard Signal Generator (Sine Wave)

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 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

Basic Standard Signal Generator (Sine Wave)

• The simple sine wave generator consists of two basic

blocks, an oscillator and an attenuator. The performance of
the generator depends on the success of these two main
parts.
• The accuracy of the frequency, stability, and freedom from
distortion depend on the design of the oscillator, while the
amplitude depends on the design of the attenuator.
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 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

Oscillators

AF Oscillators

Fixed Frequency Variable Frequency

AF Oscillator AF Oscillator

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 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

Fixed Frequency AF Oscillator

• In many cases, a self-contained oscillator circuit is an
integral part of the instrument circuitry and is used to
generate a signal at some specified audio frequency.
• Such a fixed frequency might be a 400 Hz signal used
for audio testing or a 1000 Hz signal for exciting a
bridge circuit.
• Oscillations at specified audio frequencies are easily
generated by the use of an iron core transformer to
obtain positive feedback through inductive coupling
between the primary and secondary windings.
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 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

Variable Frequency AF Oscillator

• A variable AF oscillator for general purpose use in a
laboratory should cover at least the full range of
audibility (20 Hz to 20 kHz) and should have a fairly
constant pure sinusoidal wave output over the
entire frequency range.
• Hence, variable frequency AF generators for
laboratory use are of the RC feedback oscillator type
or Beat Frequency Oscillator (BFO) type.

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 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

Conventional Standard Signal Generator

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 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

Conventional Standard Signal Generator

• A standard signal generator produces known and
controllable voltages.
• It is used as power source for the measurement
of gain, signal to noise ratio (S/N), bandwidth,
standing wave ratio and other properties.
• It is extensively used in the testing of radio
receivers and transmitters.
• The output signal can be Amplitude Modulated
(AM) or Frequency Modulated (FM).
• Modulation may be done by a sine wave, square
wave, triangular wave or a pulse.
T.S.S.Naga Pavan Kumar
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

Conventional Standard Signal Generator

• The carrier frequency is generated by a very stable
RF oscillator using an LC tank circuit, having a
constant output over any frequency range.
• Frequency stability is limited by the LC tank circuit
design of the master oscillator.
• In high frequency oscillators, it is essential to isolate
the oscillator circuit from the output circuit.
• This isolation is necessary, so that changes
occurring in the output circuit do not affect the
oscillator frequency, amplitude and distortion
characteristics.
• Buffer amplifiers are used for this purpose.
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 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

AF Sine and Square

Wave Generator

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AF Sine and Square Wave Generator

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 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

AF Sine and Square Wave Generator

• The Wien bridge oscillator is the best for the
audio frequency range.
• The frequency of oscillations can be changed
by varying the capacitance in the oscillator.
• The frequency can also be changed in steps
by switching in resistors of different values.
• The frequency can also be changed in steps
by switching in resistors of different values

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 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

AF Sine and Square Wave Generator

• The function switch directs the oscillator
output either to the sine wave amplifier or
to the square wave shaper. At the output,
we get either a square or sine wave.
• The output is varied by means of an
attenuator.
• The instrument generates a frequency
ranging from 10 Hz to 1 MHz, continuously
variable in 5 decades with overlapping
ranges.
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 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

Front Panel of a Signal Generator

1. Frequency selector It selects the frequency in different ranges and varies
it continuously in a ratio of 1 : 11. The scale is non-linear.
2. Frequency multiplier It selects the frequency range over 5 decades,
from 10 Hz to 1 MHz.
3. Amplitude multiplier It attenuates the sine wave in 3 decades, X1, X0.1
and X0.01.
4. Variable amplitude It attenuates the sine wave amplitude continuously.
5. Symmetry control It varies the symmetry of the square wave from 30%
to 70%.
6. Amplitude It attenuates the square wave output continuously.
7. Function switch It selects either sine wave or square wave output.
8. Output available This provides sine wave or square wave output.
9. Sync This terminal is used to provide synchronization of the internal
signal with an external signal.
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 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

Function Generator

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 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

Function Generator

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 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

Function Generator
• A function generator produces different waveforms of adjustable
frequency.
• The frequency may be adjusted, from a fraction of a Hertz to
several hundred kHz.
• The various outputs of the generator can be made available at the
same time.
Capability of Phase Lock
• The function generator can be phase locked to an external source.
• One function generator can be used to lock a second function
generator, and the two output signals can be displaced in phase
by adjustable amount.

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 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

Function Generator

• Usually the frequency is controlled by varying the

capacitor in the LC or RC circuit.
• In this instrument the frequency is controlled by varying
the magnitude of current which drives the integrator.
• The instrument produces sine, triangular and square
waves with a frequency range of 0.01 Hz to 100 kHz.
• The frequency controlled voltage regulates two current
sources
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Function Generator

• The upper current source supplies constant

current to the integrator whose output voltage
increases linearly with time, according to the
equation of the output signal voltage.

T.S.S.Naga Pavan Kumar

 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

Function Generator

• An increase or decrease in the current increases

or decreases the slope of the output voltage and
hence controls the frequency.
• The voltage comparator multivibrator changes
states at a pre-determined maximum level of the
integrator output voltage. This change cuts off
the upper current supply and switches on the
lower current supply.
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 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

Function Generator

• The lower current source supplies a reverse

current to the integrator, so that its output
decreases linearly with time.
• When the output reaches a pre-determined
minimum level, the voltage comparator again
changes state and switches on the upper current
source.
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 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

Function Generator

• The output of the integrator is a triangular waveform

whose frequency is determined by the magnitude of
the current supplied by the constant current sources.
• The comparator output delivers a square wave voltage
of the same frequency.
• The resistance diode network alters the slope of the
triangular wave as its amplitude changes and produces
a sine wave with less than 1% distortion.
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 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

Square & Pulse

Generator

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 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

Square And Pulse Generator

• These generators are used as measuring devices in
combination with a CRO.
• They provide both quantitative and qualitative
information of the system under test.
• They are made use of in transient response testing
of amplifiers.
• The fundamental difference between a pulse
generator and a square wave generator is in the
duty cycle.

T.S.S.Naga Pavan Kumar • A square wave generator has a 50% duty cycle.
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

Requirements of a Pulse
1. The pulse should have minimum distortion.
2. The basic characteristics of the pulse are rise time,
overshoot, ringing, sag, and undershoot.
3. The pulse should have sufficient maximum amplitude.
4. The range of frequency control of the pulse repetition rate
(PRR) should meet the needs of the experiment.
5. Pulse generators can be used to produce trigger signals.
6. The output impedance of the pulse generator is another
important consideration.
7. DC coupling of the output circuit is needed, when dc bias
level is to be maintained.
T.S.S.Naga Pavan Kumar
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

Block Diagram of a Pulse Generator

T.S.S.Naga Pavan Kumar

 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

• The basic circuit for pulse generation is

Pulse Generator the asymmetrical multi-vibrator.
• The frequency range of the instrument is
covered in seven decade steps from 1 Hz
to 10 MHz, with a linearly a calibrated dial
for continuous adjustment on all ranges.
• Two independent outputs are available, a
50Ω source that supplies pulses with a
rise and fall time of 5 ns at 5V peak
amplitude and a 600Ω source which
supplies pulses with a rise and fall time of
70 ns at 30 V peak amplitude.
• The instrument can be operated as a free
running generator, or it can be
synchronized with external signals.
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 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

Basic Generating Loop

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 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

• The upper current source supplies a

Pulse Generator constant current to the capacitor and the
capacitor voltage increases linearly.
• When the positive slope of the ramp
voltage reaches the upper limit set by the
internal circuit components, the Schmitt
trigger changes state.
• The trigger circuit output becomes
negative and reverses the condition of the
current switch.
• The capacitor discharges linearly,
controlled by the lower current source.
• When the negative ramp reaches a
predetermined lower level, the Schmitt
trigger switches back to its original state.
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 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

• The entire process is then repeated.

Pulse Generator The ratio i1/i2 determines the duty
cycle, and is controlled by symmetry
control.
• The sum of i1 and i2 determines the
frequency. The size of the capacitor is
selected by the multiplier switch.
• The unit is powered by an internal
supply that provides regulated
voltages for all stages of the
instrument.

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 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

Random Noise
Generator

T.S.S.Naga Pavan Kumar

 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

T.S.S.Naga Pavan Kumar

 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

Random Noise Generator

• Random-Noise Generator provides a high level of
electrical noise.
• Noise generators are used to test signals for measuring
noise figure, frequency response, and other parameters
• The spectrum of random noise covers all frequencies
and is referred to as White noise, i.e. noise having
equal power density at all frequencies.
• The power density spectrum tells us how the energy of
a signal is distributed in frequency, but it does not
specify the signal uniquely, nor does it tell us very
much about how the amplitude of the signal varies
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 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

Noise types
• In audio engineering, electronics, physics, and
many other fields, the color of noise refers to the
power spectrum of a noise signal.
• Different colors of noise have significantly different
properties.
• White noise, a signal whose spectrum has equal
power within any equal interval of frequencies.
• Pink Noise is used in audio testing to simulate
background noise in an environment.
• USASI (United States of America Standards
Institute)
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 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

Random Noise Generator

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 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

Random Noise Generator

• The method of generating noise is usually to use a

semi conductor noise diode, which delivers
frequencies in a band roughly extending from 80 –
220 kHz.
• The output from the noise diode is amplified and
heterodyned down to the audio frequency band by
means of a balanced symmetrical modulator.
• The filter arrangement controls the bandwidth and
supplies an output signal in three spectrum choices,
white noise, pink noise and Usasi noise
T.S.S.Naga Pavan Kumar
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

Random Noise Generator

• White noise is flat from 20 Hz to 25 kHz
and has an upper cutoff frequency of 50
kHz.
• Pink noise is so called because the lower
frequencies have a larger amplitude, similar
to red light. Pink noise has a voltage
spectrum which is inversely proportional to
the square root of frequency and is used in
bandwidth analysis.
• USASI noise ranging simulates the energy
distribution of speech and music
frequencies and is used fortesting audio
amplifiers and loud speakers.
T.S.S.Naga Pavan Kumar
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

You Tube Channel: https://youtube.com/channel/UC6-ghzSpPNrBeT_gvVRxjoA

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 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

Sweep Generator

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 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

Sweep Generator
• Sweep generators also called time-base generator.
• Linear output voltages or currents.
• Used in TV receivers.
• Used in CRO Horizontal deflection systems.
• Sweep generators are used for testing the frequency
response over a range of frequencies.
• Sweep Generator provides a sinusoidal output voltage
whose frequency varies smoothly and continuously
over an entire frequency band, usually at an audio
rate.
• The process of frequency modulation may be
T.S.S.Naga Pavan Kumar
accomplished electronically or mechanically.
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

Sweep Generator Total Time Period = Ts+Tr

Vo

Vm

Ts Tr t
Ts - Sweep Time
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Sweep Generator

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 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

Sweep Generator
• The frequency sweeper provides a variable
modulating voltage which causes the
capacitance of the master oscillator to
vary. A representative sweep rate could be
of the order of 20 sweeps/second.
• A manual control allows independent
adjustment of the oscillator resonant
frequency

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 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

Sweep Generator
• To identify a frequency interval, a marker
generator provides half sinusoidal
waveforms at any frequency within the
sweep range.
• The marker voltage can be added to the
sweep voltage of the CRO during alternate
cycles of the sweep voltage, and appears
superimposed on the response curve.

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 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

Sweep Generator
• The automatic level control circuit is a
closed loop feedback system which
monitors the RF level at some point in the
measurement system.
• This circuit holds the power delivered to
the load or test circuit constant and
independent of frequency and impedance
changes.
• A constant power level prevents any source
mismatch and also provides a constant
readout calibration with frequency.
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 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

Advantages of Sweep Generators

• The output voltage over entire frequency band is
available.
• Automatic level controller keeps power constant
avoiding the source mismatch and loading effects.
• Independent master oscillator frequency control is
possible.
• Sweep-frequency generators are primarily used for
measuring the responses of amplifiers, filters, and
electrical components over various frequency
bands.
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 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

Arbitrary Waveform Generator (AWG)

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 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

Arbitrary Waveform Generator (AWG)

• An arbitrary waveform generator (AWG) is a piece of
electronic test equipment used to generate
electrical waveforms.
• These waveforms can be either repetitive or single-
shot (once only) in which case some kind of
triggering source is required (internal or external).
• The resulting waveforms can be injected into a
device under test and analyzed as they progress
through it, confirming the proper operation of the
device or pinpointing a fault in it.
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 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

Arbitrary Waveform Generator (AWG)

Unlike function generators, AWGs can generate any
arbitrarily defined waveshape as their output.
Function Generators
• Including Sine, Square, Triangular, Pulse and Ramp
signals.
Advanced Functions
• Multi-tine, AM/FM, cardiac, Gaussian Pulse, noise and
others
Arbitrary Waveforms
• Point-to-Point user-defined waveforms.
T.S.S.Naga Pavan Kumar
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

Arbitrary Waveform
• Arbitrary Waveforms is defined as a waveform that
doesn’t have a predefined shape or characteristics,
its amplitude and frequency can be varied in
random manner.
• It poses periodicity at sometimes and non
periodicity at other times.
• It is digitally based signal source capable of
generating any waveform within published limits of
bandwidth, frequency range accuracy and output
level.
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 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

Arbitrary Waveform Generator

Address D/A
RAM LPF Amplifier
Counter Converter Output

Clock

Block Diagram of
Arbitrary Waveform Generator
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 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

Address D/A
RAM LPF Amplifier
Counter Converter Output

Clock

Block Diagram of Arbitrary Waveform Generator

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 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

Arbitrary Waveform Generator Advantages

• Arbitrary waveforms are used to test the signals.
• Arbitrary waveforms also used to generate digital
signals.
• Arbitrary waveform Generator stores the digital data
in RAM.
• It detects any faults.
• Proper functions are available.

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 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

Wave Analyzers

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 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

Contents - Wave Analyzers

1. Frequency Selective Wave Analyzer

2. Harmonic Distortion Analyzers
3. Spectrum Analyzers
4. Digital Fourier Analyzers.

TEXTBOOKS :
T.S.S.Naga Pavan Kumar
Electronic Instrumentation, second edition - H.S.Kalsi, Tata McGraw Hill, 2004.
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

Introduction
• A Wave Analyzer is an instrument designed to
measure relative amplitudes of single frequency
components in a complex waveform.
• Basically, a wave instrument acts as a frequency
selective voltmeter which is tuned to the frequency
of one signal while rejecting all other signal
components.

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 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

Basic Wave Analyzer

• Basic wave analyzer mainly consists of three
blocks − the primary detector, full wave rectifier,
and PMMC galvanometer

Input
Primary Full-Wave PMMC
Detector Rectifier Galvanometer

Meter Reading
Output
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 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

Basic Wave Analyzer

• Primary Detector − It consists of an LC circuit. We can
adjust the values of inductor, L and capacitor, C in such
a way that it allows only the desired harmonic
frequency component that is to be measured.
• Full Wave Rectifier − It converts the AC input into a DC
output.
• PMMC Galvanometer − It shows the peak value of the
signal, which is obtained at the output of Full wave
rectifier.
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Circuit Diagram of Basic Wave Analyzer

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Frequency Selective Wave Analyzer

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 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

Frequency Selective Wave Analyzer

• The wave analyzer consists of a very narrow pass-
band filter section which can be tuned to a particular
frequency within the audible frequency range (20 Hz
– 20 kHz).
• The complex wave to be analyzed is passed through
an adjustable attenuator which serves as a range
multiplier and permits a large range of signal
amplitudes to be analyzed without loading the
amplifier.
• The output of the attenuator is then fed to a selective
amplifier, which amplifies the selected frequency.
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 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

Frequency Selective Wave Analyzer

• The driver amplifier applies the attenuated input signal to
a high-Q active filter.
• This high-Q filter is a low pass filter which allows the
frequency which is selected to pass and reject all
others.
• The magnitude of this selected frequency is indicated by
the meter and the filter section identifies the
frequency of the component.
• The filter circuit consists of a cascaded RC resonant
circuit and amplifiers.
• For selecting the frequency range, the capacitors generally
used are of the closed tolerance polystyrene type and
T.S.S.Naga Pavan Kumar the resistances used are precision potentiometers.
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

Frequency Selective Wave Analyzer

• The capacitors are used for range changing and the
potentiometer is used to change the frequency
within the selected pass-band, Hence this wave
analyzer is also called a Frequency selective
voltmeter.
• The entire AF range is covered in decade steps by
switching capacitors in the RC section.
• The selected signal output from the final amplifier
stage is applied to the meter circuit and to an
unturned buffer amplifier.
• The main function of the buffer amplifier is to drive
output devices, such as recorders or electronics
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 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

Frequency Selective
Wave Analyzer

• The meter has several voltage ranges as well as decibel

scales marked on it.
• It is driven by an average reading rectifier type detector.
• The wave analyzer must have extremely low input
distortion, undetectable by the analyzer itself.
• The bandwidth of the instrument is very narrow,
typically about 1% of the selective band given by the
T.S.S.Naga Pavan Kumar following response characteristics).
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

Unit-2

Harmonic Distortion
Analyzer

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Distortion Analyzers
• Distortion Analyzers measures distortions introduced by the
active and passive devices.
• Harmonic distortions can be quantitatively measured very
accurately with a harmonic distortion analyzer, generally called
a distortion analyzer.
• Harmonic distortion analyzers measure the total harmonic
content in the waveforms.

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 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

Distortion Analyzers
The total harmonic distortion or factor is given by

𝑫= √ 𝑫 +𝑫 +𝑫 ……
𝟐
𝟐
𝟐
𝟑
𝟐
𝟒

The distortion analyzer measures the total harmonic

distortion without indicating the amplitude and
frequency of each component waves.
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 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2
Distortion Analyzer

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Fundamental Suppression Type

• A distortion analyzer measures the total harmonic power present in
the test wave rather than the distortion caused by each component.
• The simplest method is to suppress the fundamental frequency
• Suppress or block the Fundamental Frequency.
• Allow to pass all the harmonics to reach meter.
Methods to suppress the fundamental frequency
1. Using high Pass Filter.
2. Employing a Resonance Bridge.
3. Wien’s Bridge Method.
4. Bridged T-Network Method

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Harmonic Distortion Analyzer

Fundamental
1. Using High-Pass Filter Frequency
Test Wave contains
HPF
Fundamental Meter Harmonics
High Pass Filter
Frequency

• The simplest method is to suppress the Gain

Fundamental Frequency by using High Pass Filter
(HPF).
• The High Pass Filter allows harmonics which are
Stop Pass
pass band.
band band
• Hence the total Harmonics can be measured using
a meter. 0
Frequency (f)
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 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

Harmonic Distortion Analyzer

2. Employing a Resonance Bridge

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 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

Harmonic Distortion Analyzer

2. Employing a Resonance Bridge

• The bridge is balanced for the fundamental frequency

• i.e. L and C are tuned to the fundamental frequency.
• The bridge is unbalanced for the harmonics.
• i.e. only harmonic power will be passed through the
bridge.
• The Harmonic power is available at output terminal
T.S.S.Naga Pavan Kumar and can be measured on the meter.
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

Harmonic Distortion Analyzer

2. Employing a Resonance Bridge

• The bridge is balanced for the fundamental frequency

• i.e. L and C are tuned to the fundamental frequency.
• The bridge is unbalanced for the harmonics.
• i.e. only harmonic power will be passed through the
bridge.
• The Harmonic power is available at output terminal
T.S.S.Naga Pavan Kumar and can be measured on the meter.
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

Harmonic Distortion Analyzer

2. Employing a Resonance Bridge
There are two types of Fundamental Frequencies
• Fixed and Variable Fundamental Frequencies
• If L and C are fixed components, then this method is suitable only when
the test wave has a fixed frequency.
• If the fundamental frequency is changed, the bridge must be balanced
again.
• This Indicators can be thermocouples or square law VTVM (Vacuum-Tube
Voltmeter).
• This indicates the rms value of all harmonics.
• When a continuous adjustment of the fundamental frequency is desired, a
Wien bridge arrangement is used Wien’s bridge method
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 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

Harmonic Distortion Analyzer

3. Wien’s Bridge Method

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 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

Harmonic Distortion Analyzer

3. Wien’s Bridge Method
• The bridge is balanced for the fundamental frequency.
• The fundamental energy is dissipated in the bridge circuit
elements.
• Only the harmonic components reach the output terminals and
bridge is unbalanced.
• The harmonic distortion output can then be measured with a
meter.
• For balance at the fundamental frequency,
C1=C2=C, R1=R2=R, R3=2R4
T.S.S.Naga Pavan Kumar
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

Harmonic Distortion Analyzer

4. Bridged T-Network Method

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 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

Harmonic Distortion Analyzer

4. Bridged T-Network Method

• In the above fig., L and C’s are tuned to the fundamental

frequency, and R is adjusted to bypass fundamental frequency.
• The tank circuit being tuned to the fundamental frequency, the
fundamental energy will circulate in the tank and is bypassed by
the resistance.
• Only harmonic components will reach the output terminals and
the distorted output can be measured by the meter.
• The Q of the resonant circuit must be at least 3–5.

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 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

Harmonic Distortion Analyzer

5. other way of T-Network Method

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 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

Harmonic Distortion Analyzer

5. other way of T-Network Method
• The switch S is first connected to point A so that the
attenuator is excluded and the bridge T-network is adjusted for
full suppression of the fundamental frequency, i.e. minimum
output.
• Minimum output indicates that the bridged T-network is tuned
to the fundamental frequency and that the fundamental
frequency is fully suppressed.
• The switch is next connected to terminal B, i.e. the bridged T-
network is excluded. Attenuation is adjusted until the same
reading is obtained on the meter.
T.S.S.Naga Pavan Kumar
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

Harmonic Distortion Analyzer

5. other way of T-Network Method
• The attenuator reading indicates the total rms distortion.
• Distortion measurement can also be obtained by means of a wave
analyzer, knowing the amplitude and the frequency of each
component, the harmonic distortion can be calculated.
• However, distortion meters based on fundamental suppression are
simpler to design and less expensive than wave analyzers.
• The disadvantage is that they give only the total distortion and not
the amplitude of individual distortion components.

T.S.S.Naga Pavan Kumar

 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

Unit-2

SPECTRUM ANALYZER

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 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

Definition

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 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

Definition
• A Spectrum Analyzer measures the magnitude of an
input signal versus frequency within the full
frequency range of the instrument.
• The primary use is to measure the power of the
spectrum of known and unknown signals.

T.S.S.Naga Pavan Kumar

 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

T.S.S.Naga Pavan Kumar

 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

Spectrum Analyzer
• The most common way of observing signals is to display
them on an oscilloscope, with time as the X-axis (i.e.
amplitude of the signal versus time). This is the time
domain.
• It is also useful to display signals in the frequency domain.
The instrument providing this frequency domain view is the
spectrum analyzer.
• A spectrum analyzer provides a calibrated graphical display
on its CRT, with frequency on the horizontal axis and
amplitude (voltage) on the vertical axis.

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 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

Spectrum Analyzer

T.S.S.Naga Pavan Kumar

 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

Spectrum Analyzer

• Displayed as vertical lines against these coordinates

are sinusoidal components of which the input signal is
composed. The height represents the absolute
magnitude, and the horizontal location represents the
frequency.
• These instruments provide a display of the frequency
spectrum over a given frequency band.
• Spectrum analyzers use either a parallel filter bank or
a swept frequency technique.
T.S.S.Naga Pavan Kumar
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

Spectrum Analyzer

• In a parallel filter bank analyzer, the frequency range is

covered by a series of filters whose central
frequencies and bandwidth are so selected that they
overlap each other.
• Typically, an audio analyzer will have 32 of these
filters, each covering one third of an octave.
• For wide band narrow resolution analysis, particularly
at RF or microwave signals, the swept technique is
preferred.
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 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

Basic Spectrum Analyzer (Using Swept Receiver

Design)

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 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

Basic Spectrum Analyzer (Using Swept Receiver Design)

• The sawtooth generator provides the sawtooth voltage which
drives the horizontal axis element of the scope and this
sawtooth voltage is the frequency controlled element of the
voltage tuned oscillator.
• As the oscillator sweeps from fmin to fmax of its frequency band
at a linear recurring rate, it beats with the frequency
component of the input signal and produce an IF, whenever a
frequency component is met during its sweep.
• The frequency component and voltage tuned oscillator
frequency beats together to produce a difference frequency,
i.e. IF.
• The IF corresponding to the component is amplified and
detected if necessary, and then applied to the vertical plates of
T.S.S.Naga Pavan Kumar the CRO, producing a display of amplitude versus frequency.
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

The spectrum produced if the input wave is a single toned A.M.

Waveforms

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 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

Basic Spectrum Analyzer (Using Swept Receiver Design)

• One of the principal applications of spectrum
analyzers has been in the study of the RF spectrum
produced in microwave instruments.
• In a microwave instrument, the horizontal axis can
display as a wide a range as 2 – 3 GHz for a broad
survey and as narrow as 30 kHz, for a highly
magnified view of any small portion of the
spectrum.
• Signals at microwave frequency separated by only a
few kHz can be seen individually.
T.S.S.Naga Pavan Kumar
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

RF Spectrum Analyzer

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 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

RF Spectrum Analyzer
• The frequency range covered by this instrument
is from 1 MHz to 40 GHz.
• A spectrum analyzer covering the range 500 kHz
to 1 GHz, which is representative of a
superheterodyne type.
• The input signal is fed into a mixer which is driven
by a local oscillator.
• This oscillator is linearly tunable electrically over
the range 2 – 3 GHz.

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 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

RF Spectrum Analyzer
• The mixer provides two signals at its output that are
proportional in amplitude to the input signal but of
frequencies which are the sum and difference of the
input signal and local oscillator frequency.
• The IF amplifier is tuned to a narrow band around 2 GHz,
since the local oscillator is tuned over the range of 2 – 3
GHz, only inputs that are separated from the local
oscillator frequency by 2 GHz will be converted to IF
frequency band, pass through the IF frequency amplifier,
get rectified and produce a vertical deflection on the CRT.
• Spectrum analyzers are widely used in radars,
oceanography, and bio-medical fields.
T.S.S.Naga Pavan Kumar
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

Unit-2

Digital Fourier Analyzer

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 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

Digital Fourier Analyzer

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 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

Digital Fourier Analyzer

• The Digital Fourier Analyzer converts the analogue
waveform over time period (T) into (N) samples.
• The discrete spectral response Sx(kΔf ); k = 1, 2, ..., N
which is equivalent to simultaneously obtaining the
output from N filters having a bandwidth given by Δf
= 1/T, is obtained by applying a Discrete Fourier
Transform (DFT) to the sampled version of the signal.
The spectral response is thus given by

T.S.S.Naga Pavan Kumar

𝑻
𝑺 𝑿 ( 𝒌 𝜟 𝒇 ) = ∑ 𝒙 ( 𝒏 . 𝜟𝒕 ) 𝒆𝒙𝒑
𝑵 𝒏=𝟏 (− 𝒋𝟐 𝜫 𝒌𝒏
𝑵 )
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

Conversion Process Continuous Time Signal X(t)

Sampling

Discrete Time Signal X(n)

Discrete Time Fourier Transform (DTFT) Fourier Transform (FT)

Continuous Spectrum in terms of ω
X(w)
Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) Sampling
Discrete Frequency domain Signal
Note: X –Time Domain X(k)
X - Frequency Domain
T.S.S.Naga Pavan Kumar
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

Digital Fourier Analyzer

• Sx (kΔf ) is a complex quantity, which is obtained by operating on all the
sample x (n.Δt); n = 1, 2, 3, ..., N by the complex factor exp [– j [(2Πkn)/N]].
• The discrete inverse transform is given by
𝑵
𝑵
(
𝒙 ( 𝒏 . 𝜟𝒕 ) = ∑ 𝑺 𝑿 ( 𝒌 𝜟 𝒇 ) 𝒆𝒙𝒑
𝑻 𝒏=𝟏
− 𝒋 𝟐 𝜫 𝒌𝒏
𝑵 )
• where n = 1, 2, ..., N.
• Since Sx (k.Δf ); k = 1, 2, ..., N is a complex quantity, the DFT provides both
amplitude and phase information at a particular point in the spectrum.
• The discrete transforms are usually implemented by means of the Fast
Fourier Transform (FFT), which is particularly suitable for implementation
in a digital computer, since N is constrained to the power of 2, i.e. 210 =
T.S.S.Naga Pavan Kumar
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

Digital Fourier Analyzer

• This digital signal analyzer employs an FFT algorithm.
• The block diagram is divided into three sections, namely
1. Input section
2. Control section
3. Display Section

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 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI)
Control Section Unit-2
Block Diagram of
Digital Fourier Analyzer
Input Section

Display Section

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 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

Digital Fourier Analyzer

• The input section consists of two identical channels.
• The input signal is applied to the input amplifier, where it is
conditioned and passed through two or more anti-aliasing
filters.
• The cut-off frequencies of these filters are selected with
respect to the sampling frequency being used.
• The 30 kHz filter is used with a sampling rate of 102.4 kHz and
the 300 kHz filter with a sampling rate of 1.024 MHz.

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 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

Digital Fourier Analyzer

• To convert the signal into digital form, a 12 bit ADC is used.
• The output from the ADC is connected to a multiplier and a digital
filter.
• Depending on the mode of the analyzer to be used, either in
• Base-Band Mode (in which the spectrum is displayed from a dc to an
upper frequency within the bandwidth of the analyzer)
• Band Selectable Mode (which allows the full resolution of the analyzer to
be focussed in a narrow frequency band), the signal is multiplied either by
a sine or cosine function.
• The processing section of the analyzer provides FFT processing on
the input signal (linear or logarithm).
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 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

Digital Fourier Analyzer

• For one channel this can provide
1. Real (magnitude)
2. Imaginary (phase)
• of the linear spectrum Sx(f) of a time domain signal
Sx(f) = F(x(t))
• where F(x(t)) is the Fourier transform of x(t). The autospectrum Gxx(f)
which contains no phase information is obtained from Sx(f) as
Gxx(f) = Sx(f) Sx(f)*
where Sx(f)* indicates the complex conjugate of Sx(f).
• The Power Spectral Density (PSD) is obtained by normalising the
function Gxx(f) to a bandwidth of 1 Hz, which represents the power in a
T.S.S.Naga Pavan Kumar
 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

Digital Fourier Analyzer

T.S.S.Naga Pavan Kumar

 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

Digital Fourier Analyzer

T.S.S.Naga Pavan Kumar

 Electronic Measurements & Instrumentation (EMI) Unit-2

YouTube Video links (EMI:Unit-2)

Topic Title Youtube Link

1 EMI220 - Wave Analyzers, Frequency Selective Wave Analyzer https://youtu.be/5zVUoRCniO4

2 EMI221 - Harmonic Distortion Analyzer https://youtu.be/Lm4v0r0Yfsw

3 EMI222 - SPECTRUM ANALYZER https://youtu.be/ksAZTSWRoE8

4 EMI223 - Digital Fourier Analyzer https://youtu.be/NiZBMftPrT4

T.S.S.Naga Pavan Kumar