Analog & Digital Electronics

Mr. E. MAHENDER REDDY

Assistant Professor
ECE Department , MRCET
 Course Objectives

1. To familiarize with the principal of operation,

analysis and design of pn junction diode.
2. To study the construction of BJT and its
characteristics in different configurations.
3. To study the construction and characteristics
of JFET and MOSFET.
4. To study basic number systems codes and
logical gates.
5. To introduce the methods for simplifying
Boolean expressions and design of combinational
circuits.
 Syllabus
UNIT‐I
P‐N Junction diode: Qualitative Theory of P‐N Junction, P‐N Junction as a
diode , diode equation, volt‐ampere characteristics temperature dependence
of V‐I characteristic , ideal versus practical, diode equivalent circuits,,
Zener diode characteristics.
UNIT‐II
Bipolar junction transistor: The Junction transistor, Transistor
construction ,Transistor current components, Transistor as an amplifier,
Input and Output characteristics of transistor in Common Base, Common
Emitter, and Common collector configurations. α and β Parameters and the
relation between them, BJT Specifications.
UNIT‐III
Field effect transistor: JFET-Construction, principle of Operation, Volt–
Ampere characteristics, Pinch- off voltage. Small signal model of JFET.
FET as Voltage Variable Resistor, Comparison of BJT and FET. MOSFET-
Construction, Principle of Operation and symbol, MOSFET characteristics
in Enhancement and Depletion modes.
UNIT-IV
Number System and Boolean Algebra:
Number Systems, Base Conversion Methods, Complements of Numbers,
Codes‐ Binary Codes, Binary Coded Decimal, Unit Distance Code, Digital
Logic Gates (AND, NAND, OR, NOR, EX‐OR, EX‐NOR), Properties of XOR
Gates, Universal Gates, Basic Theorems and Properties, Switching Functions,
Canonical and Standard Form.
UNIT‐V
Minimization Techniques:
The Karnaugh Map Method, Three, Four and Five Variable Maps, Prime and
Essential Implications, Don’t Care Map Entries, Using the Maps for
Simplifying, Multilevel NAND/NOR realizations.
Combinational Circuits:
Design procedure – Half adder, Full Adder, Half subtractor, Full subtractor,
Multiplexer/Demultiplexer, decoder, encoder, Code converters, Magnitude
Comparator.
Si(14): 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p2

Ge(32):1s2 2s22p6 3s23p63d10 4s24p2

Drift Current:

Drift current can be defined as the charge

carrier’s moves in a semiconductor because
of the electric field. There are two kinds of
charge carriers in a semiconductor like holes
and electrons. Once the voltage is applied to a
semiconductor, then electrons move toward
the +Ve terminal of a battery whereas the
holes travel toward the –Ve terminal of a
battery.
Diffusion current
The process by which, charge carriers (electrons or holes) in
a semiconductor moves from a region of higher concentration
to a region of lower concentration is called diffusion.
Al(13): 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1
P(15): 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p3
 UNIT-I
Qualitative Theory of P-N Junction
The formation of depletion layer in PN junction.
The formation of depletion layer in PN junction

• At the instant P-N junction formation, the free electrons near the junction
in the N- region begin to diffuse across the junction in to P- region where
they combine with holes near the junction.
• The result is that N-region loses free electrons this creates a layer of
positive charges (pentavalent ions) near the junction.
• The P-region loses holes and the result that there is a negative charges
(trivalent ions near the junction.
• The shaded region on both sides of the junction in Fig. below contains
only immobile ions and no free charge carriers such as electrons or holes.
• In other words this region is depleted of free charge carriers. Therefore
region is called as depletion region.
• Once P-N junction is formed and depletion layer is created the diffusion
of free electrons stops.
• The positive and negative charges set an electric field.
Formation of Depletion Region
Principle
• If the p-region (anode) is connected to the positive terminal of the
external DC source and n-side (cathode) is connected to the
negative terminal of the DC source then the biasing is said to be
“forward biasing”.
• Due to the negative terminal of external source connected to the
n-region, free electrons from n-side are pushed towards the p-side.
Similarly the positive end of the supply will push holes from p-side
towards the n-side.
With increase in the external supply voltage V, more and more
number of holes (p-side) and electrons (n-side) start travelling
towards the junction as shown in figure.
• The holes will start converting the negative ions into neutral atoms
and the electrons will convert the positive ions into neutral atoms.
As a result of this, the width of depletion region will reduce.
• Due to reduction in the depletion region width, the barrier
potential will also reduce. Eventually at a particular value of V the
depletion region will collapse. Now there is absolutely no opposition
to the flow of electrons and holes.
Hence a large number of electrons and holes (majority carriers) can
cross the junction under the influence of externally connected DC
The forward and reverse characteristics of PN junction diode
•The forward characteristic is the graph of the anode to
cathode forward voltage VF versus the forward current
through the diode (IF).

• The forward characteristics is divided into two portions,

AB and BC

•Region A to B of the forward characteristics.

•The forward voltage is small and less than the cut in
voltage. Therefore the forward current flowing through
the diode is small. With further increase in the forward
voltage, it reaches the level of the cut in voltage and the
width the depletion region goes on decreasing
Region B to C:

•As soon as the forward voltage equals the cut in voltage,

current through the diode increase suddenly. The nature
of this current is exponential. The large forward current
in the region B-C of the forward characteristics is limited
by connecting a resistor R in series with the diode.
Forward current is of the order of a few mA.

• The forward current is a conventional current that flows

from anode to cathode. Therefore it is considered to be a
positive current, and the forward characteristics appears
in the first quadrant.
Cut in voltage (Knee voltage):

• The voltage at which the forward diode current starts

increasing rapidly is known as the cut in voltage of a
diode. The cut in voltage is very close to the barrier
potential. Cut in voltage is also called as knee voltage.

• Generally a diode is forward biased above the cut in

voltage. The cut in voltage for a silicon diode is 0.7 V and
that for a germanium diode is 0.3V.
Reverse characteristics of a Diode.
•Current flowing through a diode in the reverse biased state is
the reverse saturation current which flows due to the minority
carriers.
•Therefore it is treated as a negative current. Hence the reverse
characterisitcs appears equal to Io if the temperature is constant.
• As the reverse voltage is increased, the reverse saturation
current remains constant equal to I0 if the temperature is
constant. This is because, reverse saturation current does not
depend on reverse voltage but it depends only on temperature.
• But as the reverse voltage reaches the breakdown voltage
value. a large current flows through the diode
• Thus we define the reverse breakdown voltage of a pn junction
diode as the reverse voltage at which breakdown takes place
and a large reverse current starts flowing through the diode.
• Operation in the breakdown region should be avoided because
the diode may be damaged due to excessive power dissipation.
•Typically the reverse breakdown voltage for p-n junction diode
is in range of 50 to 100 volts.
PN Junction Diode Characteristics
PN Junction Diode Characteristics
Zener Breakdown and Avalanche Breakdown

The Avalanche Breakdown and Zener Breakdown are

two different mechanisms by which a PN junction
breaks. The Zener and Avalanche breakdown both
occur in diode under reverse bias. The avalanche
breakdown occurs because of the ionisation of
electrons and hole pairs whereas the Zener diode
occurs because of heavy doping.
 Avalanche breakdown

The reverse bias increases the electrical field across the depletion
region. When the high electric field exists across the depletion,
the velocity of minority charge carrier crossing the depletion
region increases. These carriers collide with the atoms of the
crystal. Because of the violent collision, the charge carrier takes
out the electrons from the atom.
The collision increases the electron-hole pair. As the electron-hole
induces in the high electric field, they are quickly separated and
collide with the other atoms of the crystals. The process is
continuous, and the electric field becomes so much higher than
the reverse current starts flowing in the PN junction. The process
is known as the Avalanche breakdown
Avalanche breakdown
 Zener breakdown

The phenomenon of the Zener breakdown occurs in the very

thin depletion region.
When a reverse voltage is applied to a Zener diode, it causes a
very intense electric field to appear across a narrow depletion
region. Such an intense electric field is strong enough to pull
some of the valence electrons into the conduction band by
breaking their covalent bonds .these electrons then become free
electrons which are available for conduction. A large number of
such free electrons will constitute a large reverse current
through the Zener diode and breakdown is said to have occurred
due to the Zener effect
Diode Current Equation

 V
VT 
I  I0  e  1
 

At Room Temp (T=300 K)

Diode Saturation Current I0

I0 can vary by orders of magnitude, depending on the

semiconductor material and dopant concentrations:
 Dp D 
I 0  Aqni  
2
 n
L N L N 
 p D n A 
In an asymmetrically doped (one-sided) pn junction, the term
associated with the more heavily doped side is negligible:
 Dp 
I 0  Aqni  
2
If the p side is much more heavily doped,
L N 
 p D
If the n side is much more heavily doped,  Dn 
2
I 0  Aqni  
 Ln N A 
Diode Current Equation in Forward Bias

 V VT 
I  I0  e  1
 

V
VT
I  I 0e  I0
V
VT
In Forward Bias
dI / dv  I 0 (1 / VT )e
V
VT
I 0e  I 0
V
VT
 dI / dv  I 0 (1 / VT )e
dI / dv  I o
Diode Current Equation in Reverse Bias

 V VT 
I  I0  e  1
 

V
VT
I  I 0e  I0

In Reverse Bias

V
VT
I 0  I 0 e

 I  I0
Diode Equivalent Models

Ideal Diode
Diode Equivalent Models

Ideal Diode
Diode Equivalent Models

Ideal Diode
Diode Equivalent Models

Ideal Diode
Diode Equivalent Models

Ideal Diode
Diode Equivalent Models

Simplified Model
Diode Equivalent Models

Simplified Model
Diode Equivalent Models

Simplified Model
Diode Equivalent Models

Simplified Model
Diode Equivalent Models

piecewise linear model

Diode Equivalent Models

piecewise linear model

Diode Equivalent Models

piecewise linear model

Diode Resistance
DC or Static Resistance
DC or Static Resistance
Dynamic Resistance
Dynamic Resistance
 V
VT
I  I 0e  I0
V
VT
dI / dv  I 0 (1 / VT )e

dI / dV  I / VT

dI / dV  I / VT
Average AC Resistance
Transition capacitance

dQ A
CT  
dV W
Diffusion capacitance

dQ I
CD  
dV VT
Summary
 Problems:1

Calculate the thermal voltage when the temperature is 25°C.

VT=kT/q

T=273+25=298

K=1/11600
-19
q=1.6x10
VT=0.0257=26mV
 Problems:2

Calculate the forward bias current of a Si diode when

forward bias voltage of 0.4V is applied, the reverse
saturation current is 1.17×10-9A and the thermal
voltage is 25.2mV.

Given V=0.4V
Io=1.17x10-9A
VT=25.2x10-3V V
VT
I  I 0 (e  1)
 Problems:3

Calculate the reverse saturation current of a diode if the current at

0.2V forward bias is 0.1mA at a temperature of 25°C and the
ideality factor is 1.5.
Given
I=0.1mA=10-4A
V=0.2V
n=1.5
VT=kT/q=0.0257V=25.7x10-3
V
VT
I  I 0e  I0

Io=5.61x10-7A
 Problems:4

Find the applied voltage on a forward biased diode if the current

is 1mA and reverse saturation current is 10-10. Temperature is
25°C and take ideality factor as 1.5
Given
I=1mA=10-3A
Io=10-10A
T=298K
VT=0.0257V
n=1.5
V
VT
I  I 0e  I0

V=0.621V
 Problems:5

Find the temperature at which a diode current is 2mA for

a diode which has reverse saturation current of 10-9 A. The
ideality factor is 1.4 and the applied voltage is 0.6V
forward bias.

Given
V V/nVt=ln(I/Io)
VT
I=2mA I  I 0e  I0 1/Vt=n/Vln(I/Io)
Io=10-9 T=1.4X14.5087
1/Vt=33.80
N=1.4
q/kT= 33.80
V=0.6
1.602X10-19
K=1/11600
q = 1.602x10-19
T=?
 Problems:6

What will be the ratio of final current to initial current of a diode if

voltage of a diode changes from 0.7V to 872.5mV. Take ideality
factor as 1.5.
 V VT 
I  I0  e  1
 

Given I2=exp(0.8725/1.5X26x10-3)
V1=0.7 I1=exp(0.7/1.5X26x10-3)
V2=0.8725V I2/I1=83.3
n = 1.5
Find the current through the diode in the circuit shown in
Fig. (i). Assume
the diode to be ideal.

I=10/50
I=0.2A
Calculate the current through 48 Ω resistor in the circuit
shown in Fig. (i).
Assume the diodes to be of silicon and forward
resistance of each diode is 1 Ω.

10-1xI-0.7-48xI-1xI-0.7=0
I=8.6/50
I=0.17A
Determine the current I in the circuit shown in Fig. (i).
Assume the diodes to
be of silicon and forward resistance of diodes to be zero.

24-2000xI-0.7-4=0
2000I=19.3
I=9.65mA
Find the voltage VA in the circuit shown in Fig. 5 (i). Use
simplified model.

20-0.3-3000I=0
3000I=19.7
I=6.575mA
VA=3000x6.575m=19.7V
Effect of Temperature on Reverse Saturation Current

 T2 T1

I 02   2 10  I 01

 
OR
 T

I 02   2 10  I 01

 
I02 is Reverse saturation Current at T2

I01 is Reverse saturation Current at T1

 Find the si diode reverse saturation current at 75oC. If the
reverse saturation current at 25oC is 5uA.

 75  25

I 02   2 10  I 01

 
OR
 10
50

I 02   2  I 01
 

Io2=32x5=160uA
 Zener Diode

Zener diodes are heavily doped than ordinary diodes. They

have extra thin depletion region. When we apply a voltage
more than the Zener breakdown voltage (can range from 1.2
volts to 200 volts), the depletion region vanishes, and large
current starts to flow through the junction. There is a crucial
difference between an ordinary diode and a Zener diode. The
depletion region regains its original position after removal of
the reverse voltage in Zener diode whereas in regular diodes,
they don’t, and hence they get destroyed.
Zener Diode Charecteristics
Zener Diode as Voltage Regulator
iisfix=izmin+iLmax
Isfix=izmax+iLmin

Ismin=iLfix+izmin
Ismax=iLfix+izmax
Iz=(0 – 30mA)
Isfix=(10-5)/100=50mA
Is=Iz+iL
Isfix=izmin+iLmax
ILmax=50-0=50mA
ILmin=50-30=20mA
Rlmin=5/50m=5000/50=100
Rlmax=5/20m=5000/20=250
Is=Iz+IL
IL=10/500=20mA
Ismin=Izmin+Ilfix=0+20m=20mA
Ismax=Izmax+Ilfix=25m+20m=45mA
Vsmin=100x20m+10=12V
Vsmax=100x45m+10=14.5V
For the circuit shown in Fig. (i), find : (i) the output
voltage (ii) the voltage drop across series resistance (iii)
the current through zener diode

i)50V
ii)120-Vx-50=0
Vx=70V
iii)Is=(120-50)/5K=14mA
IL=50/10k=5mA
Iz=Is-IL=14m-5m=9mA
For the circuit shown in Fig. (i),find the maximum and
minimum values of zener diode current.

ILfix=50/10k=5mA
Ismin=(80-50)/5k=6mA
Izmin=Ismin-Ilfix=6m-5m=1mA
Ismax=(120-50)/5k=14mA
Izmax=Ismax-ILfix=14m-5m=9mA
Applications and Uses of diodes

Diode as a Rectifier
Diodes in Clipping Circuits
Diodes in Clamping Circuits
Diodes in Logic Gates
Diodes in Voltage Multiplier Circuits
Diodes in Reverse Current Protection
Diodes in Voltage Spike Suppression