INTRODUCTION TO POETRY

*Literary Appreciation
*Definitions of Poetry
*Figures of Speech
 What is Literary Appreciation?
Literary appreciation refers to the
interpretation of works of imaginative
literature (fiction) as an intellectual,
academic, emotional, or spiritual inquiry
and exercise. In this process, the reader
interprets, evaluates, or classifies a
literary work with a view of determining
its artistic merits or demerits.
Thus, for a reader to successfully
appreciate a literary work, s/he must put
the following basic principles in proper
perspective - the context of the text, the
structure of the text, the device used by
the writer and their effectiveness, the
setting of the text and the central ideas
or themes which the text symbolises.
Therefore, the term ‘literary
appreciation’ means to find out, to
appreciate any literary piece, such as a
poem, a short story, a novel, or a play. It
is a kind of practical criticism of a given
text. In many examinations, students are
required to appreciate a literary piece
(for example, a poem).
What is Poetry?
There is no one standard definition of
poetry that can satisfy all possible shades
of opinions; rather an aggregate(d)
definition that contains aspects of some
popular views or definitions which are
representative of the various critical
approaches to literature might just be the
most sensible way to take.
• The defining characteristics or
techniques of poetry are: imagery,
sound, rhythm and diction.

•Imagery is the sensory language used

in poetry. By sensory we imply that the
language appeals to or affects the senses
of the reader or audience.
• Sound is the auditory aspect or
quality inherent in poetry. The
importance of this characteristic
lies in the fact that poetry is meant
to be heard. In its original form,
poetry is a song and most short
lyrics today still retain this
character.
•Rhythm is the wave-like movement
discernible in poetry. It accounts,
along with sound, for the musical
quality in poetry.

•Diction refers to the special choice

or selection of words utilised by
poets in their works.
•Rhythm is the wave-like movement
discernible in poetry. It accounts,
along with sound, for the musical
quality in poetry.

•Diction refers to the special choice

or selection of words utilised by
poets in their works.
 Definitions of Poetry
The following are well-known
definitions of poetry which illustrate the
varied view of this genre:

”Poetry is the language that tells us,

through a more or less emotional
reaction, something that cannot be said.
All poetry, great or small, does this.” -
Edwin Arlington Robinson.
”I would define poetry of words as
the rhythmical creation of beauty. Its
sole arbiter is taste. With the intellect
or with the conscience it has only
collateral relations. Unless
incidentally, it has no concern
whatever either with duty or with
truth.” – Edgar Allan Poe
”Poetry is the imaginative expression
of strong feeling, usually
rhythmical...the spontaneous
overflow of powerful feelings
recollected in tranquillity.” – William
Wordsworth
”The proper and immediate object of
Science is the acquirement or
communication of truth; the proper and
immediate object of Poetry is the
communication of pleasure.” - Samuel
Taylor Coleridge
”Poetry is the record of the best and
happiest moments of the best and
happiest minds.” – Percy Bysshe Shelley
”If I read a book and it makes my
whole body so cold that no fire can
ever warm me, I know that it is
poetry. If I feel physically as if the top
of my head were taken off, I know
that it is poetry.” – Emily Dickinson
Poetry is the oldest of the major literary
genres and it has been part of the
traditions of humans through the ages.
Yet, despite its long history and perennial
occurrence and employment in important
human activities, it has defied common
definition because it seems to strike
different people differently.
However, the beauty of poetry is certainly
realised in the generous use of figures of
speech. A figure of speech is a creative
use of language to generate an effect.
Some figures of speech, such as
metaphor, simile, and metonymy are
found in everyday language.
Others, like antithesis, circumlocution,
and puns take more practice to identify
and implement in writing.
Below are some common figures of
speech with examples, so you can
recognize them in literary works and use
them in your writing.
Figures of Speech
Symbolism
A symbol is an object, person, or animal
that represents something else. Symbols
generally operate as cultural conventions.
For instance, colours are made to suggest
certain ideas. Red represents danger and
passion in different contexts. The flag of
a country is also a symbolic
representation of that country.
The best-known symbols may be the
cross and the crescent which
represent Christianity and Islam
respectively. Symbols used in poetry
may not be easily recognisable. It
often takes repeated careful readings
of the same poem to identify a
symbol.
A poet may decide to use known symbols
or create symbols in a poem. Examples:
• A rose often represents romance or
beauty.
• Light can be used to symbolise truth
and safety.
• Red can be used to symbolise evil and
danger.
Pun
Pun refers to a deliberate effort to play on
words. Puns are also known as
paronomasia, a rhetorical device that uses
the dual meaning of a word to achieve an
effect. Most of the time, it takes the form
of making a word have more than one
meaning.
Examples:
• No matter how much you push the
envelope, it will still be stationery.
• A pessimist's blood type is always B-
negative.
• Reading while sunbathing makes you
well-red.
• Always trust a glue salesman. They tend
to stick to their word.
Contrast
This refers to a situation in which ideas,
experiences, or people, are placed in
opposite situations to draw attention to the
differences between them. Consider, for
instance, the ways David Rubadiri presents
Henry Stanley and King Mutesa in the
poem: “Stanley Meets Mutesa”:
“The tall black king steps forward,
He towers over the thin bearded white man”
Allusion
This refers to a deliberate reference to an
experience or story outside the text that is
related to the issues being examined. It is
often intended to broaden our
understanding of the matter or problem
being explored. Thus, it is possible to
have biblical, historical, literary, or even
clerical allusion.
Examples:
• That was always my Achilles' heel.
• It is hot as Hades in here without the AC.
• My son is the Shakespeare of his school.
He has done so many plays.
• It took a Herculean effort for her to learn
to read.
• It’s like opening Pandora’s box when you
try to figure this out.
Metaphor
This is an imaginary comparison in which
an indirect relationship is established
between two things or ideas. The basis of
this link is always a shared attribute or
quality. When, for instance, a man is
described as a lion, what is implied is that
he shares a quality identified with the
lion, say boldness.
Examples:
• My mom has a heart of gold.
• My friend's sister, Amarachi, is a
night owl.
• You just have to consider the world a
stage and act accordingly.
• Sewa has a stone heart.
Simile
Unlike metaphor in which comparison is
indirectly established between two things,
simile effects direct comparison. The
relationship is introduced through ‘as and as’,
and ‘like’. Examples:
• As proud as a peacock.
• As blind as a bat.
• As cold as ice.
• They fought like cat and dog
Rhetorical Question
A rhetorical question is a question
that is meant to merely strengthen the
point that is being made. It is
therefore not meant to elicit an
answer. It is assumed that the answer
to the question is implied.
Examples:
• “Do birds fly?” is a rhetorical question
implying, “Isn't it obvious?”
• If you have ever been late, someone
might say: 'What time do you call
this?' This person doesn't want an
answer to the question. They are
making the point that you have arrived
at an unacceptable time.
Hyperbole
Hyperbole is the use of extravagant
exaggeration as a rhetorical device or
figure of speech. In poetry and oratory, it
emphasises, evokes strong feelings, and
creates strong impressions. It is a way of
speaking or writing that makes someone
or something sound much bigger, better,
smaller, worse, more unusual, etc. than
they are.
As a figure of speech, it is usually not
meant to be taken literally. Examples:
• That suitcase weighed a ton!
• She’s going to die of
embarrassment.
• The whole world came to his
funeral.
Oxymoron
An oxymoron is a figure of speech that
juxtaposes concepts with opposite meanings
within a word or in a phrase that is a self-
contradiction (as in Shakespeare's line from
Romeo and Juliet, "Why, then, O brawling
love! O loving hate!"). Examples:
• I take bitter-sweet memories with me.
• Let’s agree to disagree.
• Home alone, I listened to the noise of
silence.
Synecdoche
Synecdoche is a figure of speech in
which a term for a part of something
is used to refer to the whole, or vice
versa. The term is derived from an
Ancient Greek which means
'simultaneous understanding'.
Examples:
• The captain commands one hundred
sails is a synecdoche that uses "sails" to
refer to ships — ships being the thing of
which a sail is a part.
• All hands on deck! "hands" stand in
for the sailors.
• “Hired hands” for "Workers"
Metonymy
Metonymy is a figure of speech in which a
concept is referred to by the name of
something closely associated with that thing or
concept. Examples:
“The White House” or “Aso Rock” is often
used as a metonymy for the presidential
administration in USA and Nigeria.
All lands in England belong to the crown.
(Crown is equated to the monarchy).
Personification
Personification is the attribution of a
personal nature or human characteristics
to something non-human, or the
representation of an abstract quality in
human form. It is a poetic device where
animals, plants, or even inanimate
objects, are given human qualities –
resulting in a poem full of imagery and
description.
Examples:
• The flowers danced in the breeze.
• A soft breeze tickled her cheek.
• The sun smiled down on us as we
picnicked in the park.
• Time flies when you're having fun.
• The old stairs groaned with each step
he took.
Alliteration
Alliteration is the repeating of
consonant sounds right next to each
other, which creates a memorable or
melodic effect.
Example: She sells seashells by the
seashore.
Antithesis
Antithesis is a literary technique that
places opposite things or ideas next to
one another to draw out their contrast.
Example: “It was the best of times,
it was the worst of times . . .”
Apostrophe
Apostrophe as a figure of speech is when
a character addresses someone or
something that isn’t present or cannot
respond. The character might speak to
someone deceased, an inanimate object,
or a concept.
Example: “O Romeo, Romeo,
wherefore art thou Romeo?”
Circumlocution
Circumlocution is the use of a purposely
wordy description. You can think of it as
talking in circles. Example: In the Harry
Potter series, most characters don’t say
Lord Voldemort’s name; instead, they use
this circumlocution: “He Who Must Not
Be Named.”
Epigram
An epigram is a clever and
memorable statement. You will find
epigrams in speeches, poetry, and at
the front of a book. Example: “No
one can make you feel inferior
without your consent.”
Euphemism
A euphemism is a way to say something in an
understated manner, often to avoid difficult
topics—like money, death, or sex. Example:
Death can be an uncomfortable subject, so
we’ve developed many euphemisms to avoid
confronting it head-on. Rather than telling a
friend that a relative died, you might say they
“kicked the bucket,” “passed away,” or are
“no longer with us.”
Irony
Irony is the expression of one's meaning
by using language that normally signifies
the opposite, typically for humorous or
emphatic effect. Examples:
• A fire station burns down. ...
• A marriage counselor files for
divorce. ...
• The police station gets robbed. ...
• A post on Facebook complains
about how useless Facebook is. ...
• A pilot has a fear of heights.
“AFRICA! MY AFRICA”
- David Diop
ANALYSIS
Africa my Africa
Africa of proud warriors in the ancestral
savannahs
Africa of whom my grandmother sings
On the banks of the distant river
I have never known you
But your blood flows in my veins
Your beautiful black blood that irrigates the fields
The blood of your sweat
The sweat of your work
The work of your slavery
The slavery of your children
Africa tell me Africa
Is this you this back that is bent
This back that breaks under the weight
of humiliation
This back trembling with red scars
And saying yes to the whip under the
midday sun
But a grave voice answers me
Impetuous son that tree young and
strong
That tree there
In splendid loneliness amidst white and
faded flowers
That is Africa your Africa
That grows again patiently obstinately
And its fruit gradually acquires
The bitter taste of liberty.
Background of the Poet
David Mandessi Diop was born on July 9th,
1927 in Bordeaux, France to a
Camerounian mother and Senegalese
father. Diop grew up in France and West
Africa and ultimately became aware of his
heritage in two different cultures and
traditions. He was deeply concerned by
the question of independence from
colonial rule for African countries.
Diop dreamt of a free Africa.
Therefore, an anti-colonial touch is
reflected in his literary creations. He
became the voice of lots of Africans
then and he was also an essential part
of the ‘Négritude’ movement.
On August 29th, 1960, Diop died
tragically in a plane crash off the coast
of Senegal, the land of his father. He
was only 33 years old.
BACKGROUND OF THE POEM
“Africa! My Africa” is presented in a
dramatic monologue, where the
speaker seems to be in a conversation
with Africa. The poem is about the
effects colonialism has had on Africa. It
traces the history of pre-colonial Africa,
then shows the torture that Africans
underwent in colonialism and how
Africa is starting afresh like a young tree.
The poem can be thematically divided
into three parts; pre colonial Africa,
colonial Africa and post colonial Africa.
THEMES
1. COLONIAL TORTURE AND EXPLOITATION
There are evidences of torture and
exploitation in the poem due to the fact
that the poet expresses how the sweat
of Africans was lost in vain.
The blood of your sweat
The sweat of your work
The lines above and below refer to a
time when Africans were turned into
slaves and worked for their masters
without any benefit.
The work of your slavery
The slavery of your children
2. OPPRESSION AND HUMILIATION
Oppression and humiliation were common
practices in colonial time. They were used to
force Africans to work for the colonisers
without objection. This has left scars on Africa.

This back that breaks under the weight of

humiliation
This back trembling with red scars
And saying yes to the whip under the midday
sun
3. IDENTITY AND AWARENESS
The poet however seems to be aware of his
identity as a black African. Although he grew up
in France and lived there, he shows that the
black blood flows in his veins and he’s proud of
his African heritage.
I have never known you
But your blood flows in my veins
That tree there
In splendid loneliness amidst white and faded
flowers
4. EFFECTS OF COLONIALISM
The poet concludes his poem by showing
the effects of colonialism on the African
continent. Nevertheless, he seems to be
optimistic that at least Africa is growing up
again just like a young tree.
That is Africa your Africa
That grows again patiently obstinately
And its fruit gradually acquires
The bitter taste of liberty.4.
POETIC DEVICES
1. Anadiplosis: The repetition in which the last
expression of one statement becomes the first
expression in the following statement:
The blood of your sweat
The sweat of your work
The work of your slavery
The slavery of your children
2. Rhetorical question: A question that does
not need a reply:
Is that you this back that is bent
3. Symbolism
‘Scars’, ‘whip’ and ‘blood’: They stand
for the torture that Africans went
through in colonial time. “Black blood”
symbolises African identity
4. Imagery
Gustatory image (i.e. image of taste):
“Bitter taste of liberty”.
Thermo image (image of heat): “The
sweat of your work”.
5. Personification
The poet addresses Africa as though it is a
human being and has blood that flows, and
can sweat ,etc.
But a grave voice answers me.
Your beautiful black blood
The sweat of your work
Is this you this back that is bent
6. Alliteration: The repetition of similar
consonant sounds at the beginning of
consecutive words.
Your beautiful black blood
7. Repetition
The word Africa is repeated 7 times
throughout the poem.
E.g. Africa my Africa.
8. Anaphora
Africa my Africa
Africa of proud warriors in the ancestral
savannahs
Africa of whom my grandmother sings