MEBS6006 Environmental Services I

Refrigeration System I
Definitions of Refrigerants

 A refrigerant is a fluid used for heat transfer in a

refrigeration system.

 Most refrigerants absorb heat during evaporation at

low temperature and low pressure and reject heat
during condensation at a higher temperature and
higher pressure.

 Some refrigerants produce a refrigeration effect

when they throttle and expand in the refrigeration
cycle.
Classification of Refrigerants

Refrigerants most commonly used refrigeration

systems can be classified into four groups:

 halocarbons,
 azeotropes,
 hydrocarbons, and
 inorganic compounds
Hydrocarbons

 Refrigerants belonging to the hydrocarbon group are

ethane, propane, butane and isobutane.

 They are produced from petroleum in an oil refinery.

 This group of refrigerants is used in the

refrigeration systems in oil refineries and the
petrochemical industry due to their low cost and
ready availablility.

 Hydrocarbons are flammable and so safety

precautions are of utmost importance in the
petrochemical industry.

Inorganic compounds

 Inorganic compounds were refrigerants used in

refrigerant this group are ammonia NH3
Halocarbons

 Refrigerants belonging to the halocarbon group are

derivatives of the hydrocarbons obtained by substituting
chlorine or fluorine for the hydrogen atoms in methane
and ethane.

 As chlorine and fluorine are both halogens, this group of

refrigerants is called the halogenated hydrocarbons or
halocarbons.

 They are sometimes referred to freons which are

colourless, non‑inflammable, non‑corrodent to most
metals and generally non‑toxic

 Common refrigerants in this group are R‑11, R‑12, R ‑13

and R‑22.
Azeotropes

 An azeotrope is a mixture of two substances

which cannot be separated into its components
by distillation.

 It evaporates and condenses as a single

substance and Its properties are completely
different from its constituents.

 For example, azeotrope R‑500 is a mixture

composed of 73.8 per cent R‑12 and 26.2 per
cent R‑152.
Terminology of Refrigerants

 In the early days of refrigeration, refrigerants were

called by their chemical names.

 However, a numbering system has been developed.

 Each kind of refrigerant is represented by a number,

and in front of this number is a prefix `R’ which
represent 'Refrigerant'.

 Before 'R' is used as the prefix, 'Freon' & 'Genetron',

the trade names of refrigerants produced by two
companies.
 For example, the R-12 they produced is called Freon-12
and Genetron-12.

 The digits related to number of fluorine, hydrogen and

carbon atoms in the molecule.
Selection of a suitable refrigerant

It depends on many factors, such as the evaporating temperature

required during operation, the coefficient of performance COP,
safety requirements, and the size and location of the
refrigeration plant.

In order to select a suitable refrigerant for a refrigeration

system of known size and evaporating temperature, the following
factors must be considered:

 The volume flow rate required per kW of refrigeration

capacity
 The coefficient of performance COP
 Safety requirements
 Physical properties
 Operating properties
 Cost.
CFC, HCFC,HFC

CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons)
These have a high ozone‑depleting potential (ODP) contributing to the
breakdown of the ozone layer, are banned by the Montreal Pro (an
international agreement to protect the earth's ozone layer) and has
been ceased to be manufactured in the European Community (e.g.R11,
R12 and R114.)

HCFCs (hydrochlorofluorocarbons)
These have limited ODP are classified under the Montreal Protocol as
transitional substances and are due to be phased out early in next
century. Examples are R22, R123 and R124.

HFCs (hydrofluorocarbons)
These contain no chlorine and therefore have zero ODP ` and in
consequence are not controlled by the Montreal Protocol. Examples are
R125, R134a and R152a. R134a can be substituted directly, requiring
replacement of some serviceable' components only for R12.
Global Warming Potential (GWP)
In addition to an ODP classification, refrigerants are also given
ratings for global warming potential (GWP), an index providing a
simple comparison with carbon dioxide which has an index rating
of unity.

Occupational Exposure Limit (OEL)

Occupational Exposure Limit (OEL), in parts per million, which
reflect the toxicity level of the various refrigerants. In the
knowledge of these allowable concentration levels in occupied
areas, it is necessary that adequate rates of ventilation be
provided in plant rooms and recommended that refrigerant leak
detection be installed.
Prevention of Leakage

Consideration should be given to limiting the volume of

refrigerant gas in a system together with improved standards
of design and installation for refrigerant pipework in order to
reduce the risk of leakage.
Hong Kong Present Situation on CFC

In line with an international agreement to protect the

earth's ozone layer, known as the Montreal Protocol,
the enactment in 1989 of the Ozone Layer Protection
Ordinance and its subsequent enforcement has brought
about a total ban on import of CFCs has been takne into
effect on 1 January 1996.

No matter how carefully the air-conditioning equipment

is maintained, some refrigerants are lost through small
leaks in pipes and valves, during major equipment
overhauls, and through accidents. All practising
professionals should be aware that there has been no
CFCs available to replenish these losses.
How to eliminate dependence on CFC for air-conditioning for existing installations

 Routine leak checks at regular intervals

 Installation of a refrigerant leak detection system to minimize the leakage

 Recover and recycle the refrigerant during servicing and maintenance of the
refrigerant circuits (a mandatory requirement under LAW to recover the
refrigerant from large plant using CFC such as R-12)

 Ensure that refrigerant circuits are well maintained by paying particular

attention to joints, seals, and gaskets. After completion of any servicing or
repair work, thoroughly check for leaks before recharging with refrigerant

 Replace refrigerants in existing systems by HCFCs(retrofit works allowing

the run of hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) or azeotrope involving minor
modifications to equipment and an allowance should be made for a slight
reduction in machine efficiency after conversion

 Install new chillers running on non-CFC refrigerants

Properties of Some Refrigerants

CFC HCFC HFC

Properties Ammonia R11 R12 R22 R123 R134

Coefficient of performance 4.75 5.00 4.69 4.65 4.93 4.61

Ozone depleting potential 0 1.0 1.0 0.05 0.014 0

Global warming potential 0 1500 4500 510 29 420

Occupational exposure limit 25 1000 1000 1000 10 1000

(ppm)
Ideal refrigerants
 Having the desired thermodynamic properties,
 Nontoxic
 Non-flammable
 Completely stable inside a system
 Environmentally benign-even with respect to
decomposition products-and abundantly available or
easy to manufacture
 Self-lubricating
 Compatible with other materials used to fabricate and
service refrigeration systems
 Easy to handle and detect
 System not operating at extreme pressures, either
high or low
Refrigeration Cycle: PH diagram
Evaporator

 A diagram of a typical vapor-compression refrigeration cycle is

superimposed on a pressure-enthalpy (P- h) chart to demonstrate the
function of each component in the system.

 The pressure-enthalpy chart plots the properties of a refrigerant—

refrigerant pressure (vertical axis) versus enthalpy (horizontal axis).

 The cycle starts with a cool, low-pressure mixture of liquid and vapor
refrigerant entering the evaporator where it absorbs heat from the
relatively warm air, water, or other fluid that is being cooled.

 This transfer of heat boils the liquid refrigerant in the evaporator, and
this superheated refrigerant vapor is drawn to the compressor.
Major Components in Vapour Compression Cycle
Refrigeration Cycle: PH diagram
Compressor

 The compressor draws in the superheated refrigerant vapor

and compresses it to a pressure and temperature high
enough that it can reject heat to another fluid.
 This hot, high-pressure refrigerant vapor then travels to the
condenser.
Refrigeration Cycle: PH diagram
Condenser

 Within the condenser, heat is transferred from the hot

refrigerant vapor to relatively cool ambient air or cooling
water.
 This reduction in the heat content of the refrigerant
vapor causes it to desuperheat, condense into liquid, and
further subcool before leaving the condenser for the
expansion device.
Refrigeration Cycle: PH diagram
Expansion Device

 The high-pressure liquid refrigerant flows through the

expansion device, causing a large pressure drop that reduces
the pressure of the refrigerant to that of the evaporator.
 This pressure reduction causes a small portion of the liquid to
boil off, or flash, cooling the remaining refrigerant to the
desired evaporator temperature.
 The cooled mixture of liquid and vapor refrigerant then enters
the evaporator to repeat the cycle.
Major Components of Vapour Compression System
Compressor

There are primarily four types of compressors used in the

air-conditioning industry:
Reciprocating,
Scroll,
Screw
Centrifugal.
Reciprocating Compressor

The refrigerant vapor is compressed by a piston that is

located inside a cylinder.

The piston is connected to the crankshaft by a rod.

As the crankshaft rotates, it causes the piston to travel

back and forth inside the cylinder.

Suction valve and the discharge valve, are used to trap

the refrigerant vapor within the cylinder during this
process.
Reciprocating Compressor
Intake stroke
The piston travels away from the discharge valve and
creates a vacuum effect

Reduction in the pressure within the cylinder to below

suction pressure forces the suction valve to open and the
refrigerant vapor is drawn into the cylinder.
Reciprocating Compressor
Compression stroke & discharge

The piston reverses its direction and travels toward the discharge valve,
compressing the refrigerant vapor

The suction valve is then closed, trapping the refrigerant vapor inside the
cylinder.

As the piston continues to travel toward the discharge valve, the

refrigerant vapor is compressed.

The discharge valve is forced open and the compressed refrigerant vapor
leaves the cylinder.
Scroll compressor
It works on the principle of trapping the refrigerant vapor and
compressing it by gradually shrinking the volume of the refrigerant.
The scroll compressor uses two scroll to perform this compression
process.
The stationary scroll contains a discharge port.
The the driven scroll is connected to a motor by a shaft and bearing
assembly.
Scroll compressor(cont’d)
The refrigerant vapor enters through the outer edge of the scroll
assembly and discharges through the port at the center of the
stationary scroll.
The orbiting motion causes the relative movement between the
orbiting scroll and the stationary scroll so that the pockets of
refrigerant moving towards the discharge port at the center of
the assembly,
Hence, there is a gradually decreasing in refrigerant volume and
increasing in pressure.
Scroll compressors are widely used in heat pumps, rooftop units,
split systems, etc.
Screw Compressor
Screw compressor traps the refrigerant vapor and compresses
it by gradually shrinking the volume of the refrigerant.

This particular screw compressor design uses two mating screw-

like rotors (male and female rotors) to perform the compression
process.

Only the male rotor is driven by the compressor motor. The

lobes of the male rotor engage and drive the female rotor, so
that the two parts counter-rotate.
Screw Compressor (Cont’d)
Refrigerant vapor enters the compressor housing
through the intake port and fills the pockets formed
by the lobes of the rotors.

As the rotors turn, they push these pockets of

refrigerant toward the discharge end of the
compressor.
Continued rotation of the rotor lobes drives the
trapped refrigerant vapor toward the discharge end of
the compressor.
This action progressively reduces the volume of the
pockets (i/.e. compressing the refrigerant).
When the pockets of refrigerant reach the discharge
port, the compressed vapor is released and the rotors
force the remaining refrigerantfrom the pockets.
Centrifugal Compressor
The centrifugal compressor adopts the principle of dynamic compression
by converting kinetic energy to static energy to increase the pressure
and temperature of the refrigerant.

A centrifugal compressor comprises rotating impeller the centre of which

is fitted with blades that draw refrigerant vapor into radial passages
that are internal to the impeller body.

The rotation of the impeller causes the refrigerant vapor to accelerate

within these passages that leaves the impeller and enters the passages.
These passages start out small and become larger as the refrigerant
travels through them. As the size of the passage increases, the kinetic
energy of the refrigerant decreases.
Open, hermetic, and semihermetic. A reciprocating compressor

Open compressor
 An open compressor is driven by an external power source,
such as anelectric motor or an engine.
 The motor is coupled to the compressor crankshaft by a
flexible coupling.
 The coupling needs precise alignment.
 The shaft protrudes through the compressor housing and
hence a seal is used to prevent refrigerant from leaking out of
the compressor housing , and these seals are a prime source of
oil and refrigerant leaks.
 This motor is cooled by air that is drawn in from the
surrounding space.
Hermetic compressor
 A hermetic compressor seals the motor within the
compressor housing.
 This motor is cooled by the refrigerant, either by
refrigerant vapor that is being drawn into the
compressor from the suction line or by liquid refrigerant
that is being drawn from the liquid line.
 The heat from the motor is then rejected by the
condenser.
 Hermetic compressors eliminate the need for the shaft
couplings.
 However, if the motor burns out, a system with a
hermetic compressor will require thorough cleaning that
is not needed for an open compressor.
Semihermetic compressor
 The motor for a semihermetic compressor is also
contained within the compressor housing and is
cooled by the refrigerant.
 The term “semihermetic” means that the sealed
housing is designed to be opened to repair or
checking the compressor or motor.
Air-Cooled Condensers
A typical air-cooled condenser uses propeller-type fans to draw
outdoor air over a finned-tube heat transfer surface.
The resulting reduction in the heat content of the refrigerant
vapor causes it to condense into liquid.
Within the final few lengths of condenser tubing (subcooler), the
liquid refrigerant is further cooled below the temperature at
which it was condensed.
Refrigeration effect
 The change in enthalpy that occurs in the evaporator is
called the refrigeration effect.
 This is the amount of heat that each kg] of liquid
refrigerant will absorb when it evaporates.
 In comparison, the same system without subcooling
produces less refrigeration
 effect. The system without subcooling must evaporate
substantially more refrigerant within a larger coil to
produce the same capacity as the system with subcooling.
Evaporative Condensers
 Within evaporative condenser, the refrigerant flows
through tubes and air is drawn or blown over the tubes
by a fan.
 Water is sprayed on the tube surfaces.
 As the air passes over the coil, a small portion of the
water evaporates.
 Evaporation of water absorbs heat from the coil that
causes the refrigerant vapor within the tubes to
condense.
Water-Cooled Condensers
 The shell-and-tube is the most common type.
 Water is pumped through the tubes while the refrigerant
vapor fills the shell space surrounding the tubes.
 As heat is transferred from the refrigerant to the water,
the refrigerant vapor condenses on the tube surfaces.
 Hot refrigerant vapour enters the water cooled condenser at
the top
 The condensed liquid refrigerant then falls to the bottom of
the shell at which is subcooled by the subcooler
Evaporator.
 The evaporator is a heat exchanger that transfers
heat from air, water, or some other fluid to the cool
liquid refrigerant.
 Two common types of evaporators are finned-tube and
shell-and-tube.
Finned-Tube Evaporators
 A finned-tube evaporator includes rows of tubes passing
through sheets of formed fins.
 Lliquid refrigerant flows through the tubes, cools the
tube and fin surfaces.
 When air passes through the coil and comes into contact
with the cold fin surfaces, heat is transferred from the
air to the refrigerant.
 The refrigerant to boil and leave the evaporator as vapor
as heat is transferred.
 The fins of the coil are formed to produce turbulence as
the air passes through them. This turbulence enhances
heat transfer, preventing stratification within the coil-
leaving airstream.
 Producing cooled air comparing with shell-and-tube type
which is for chilled water.
Superheating

 Superheating occurs inside the final length of tubes at which the

temperature difference between refrigerant and air is highest

 Such large temperature difference increases the rate of heat

transfer and the refrigerant vapor absorbs much heat.

 Liquid refrigerant completely evaporated

 Superheating shifts from the liquid/vapor region to vapor

 It ensures the refrigerant vapor is completely free liquid before

entering the compressor.
Shell-and-Tube Evaporators
 A shell-and-tube evaporator is used to produce chilled water.
 The cool liquid refrigerant flows through the tubes and water
fills the shell space surrounding the tubes.
 As heat is transferred from the water to the refrigerant, the
refrigerant boils inside the tubes.
 Water enters the shell at one end and leaves at the opposite
end.
 This chilled water is pumped to one or more heat exchangers to
handle the system cooling load.
 Baffles within the shell direct the water in a rising and falling
flow path over the tubes that carry the refrigerant. This
creates turbulence and results in improved heat transfer.
Thermostatic expansion valve
The thermostatic expansion valve
a) Maintains the pressure difference between the high-
pressure and low-pressure sides of the system,
b) Maintains the proper amount of superheat in the system
by metering the quantity of liquid refrigerant entering
the evaporator, ensuring it will be completely vaporized
within the evaporator.
Thermostatic expansion valve
 If not enough liquid refrigerant enters the evaporator, it
vaporizes too quickly and the remaining coil tubes fill with
vapor. As a result, it produces very little refrigeration
effect.
 If too much liquid refrigerant enters the evaporator, not
all of it will be vaporized. Hence, some liquid refrigerant
gets into the compressor suction line.
 Liquid refrigerant can cause excess wear and damage to the
compressor.
 The thermal expansion valve meters refrigerant by
measuring the condition of the refrigerant vapor leaving the
evaporator.
Solenoid Valve
 A solenoid valve is used to stop the flow of
refrigerant within the system.
 These valves are magnetically operated, and an
electric winding controls the opening and closing
of the valve.
 The valve is typically a normally-closed type so
that it is closed when deenergized.
Liquid-Line Filter Drier
 The liquid-line filter drier is installed upstream of
the solenoid valve and the expansion valve.
 The liquid-line filter drier prevents moisture and
foreign matter, introduced during the installation
process, from entering the expansion valve and the
solenoid valve.
 When water is mixed with refrigerant and oil, and
heat is added by the compressor, acid is formed
that can damage the valves or compressor.
Moisture-Indicating Sight Glass
A moisture-indicating sight glass is installed in the liquid
line, upstream of the expansion valve,
It enables the operator to observe the condition of the
Refrigerant:
Indicate its moisture &
Detect the presence of bubbles in the liquid line
prior to entering the expansion valve.
Shut off Valve
 Shut off valves are used to isolate one part
of the refrigeration system from the rest.
 They can be used to trap the refrigerant
charge in one component of the system, the
condenser for example, to permit service or
repair to another part of the system.