UNIT SIX

INTERNAL DEVELOPMENTS AND EXTERNAL

RELATIONS OF ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN, 1800-1941

6.1. The Nature of Interactions among Peoples and

States of Ethiopia and the Horn
•At the beginning of the 19th C, many autonomous and

semi-autonomous peoples and states existed in Ethiopia

and the Horn. These are Peoples and States in South-

Central, Southwestern, and Western Ethiopia.

 .

A. South-Central: includes like Hadiya, Halaba,

Kambata, and Gurage were autonomous and semi-
autonomous political entities during this period.
B. The Gibe States: The five Gibe states like Limmu-
Enarya, Guma, Jimma, Goma and Gera were emerged.
 Limmu-Enarya:
• It was the earliest of the Gibe states.
• Bofoo/Abba Gomol (1800-1825) established Limmu-
Enarya.
• Bofo abdicated in favor of his son, Ibsa/Abba Bagiboo
(1825-61) and the Kingdom reached the height of its
power during Ibsa’s reign. Ibsa was succeeded by
Abba Bulgaa (1861-1883).
 .

 Guma: began state formation and succeeded by

Oncho (1810-1830) and in turn followed by Jawwe
(1840-1854).
 Goma: It was formed by Abba Bokee (1800-1829)
who was succeeded by his son Abba Manoo (1829-
1840).
 Jimma:
– The process of state formation was completed by
Sanna/Abba Jifar I (r.1830-55) who formed Jimma
Kingdom. Later, consolidated state to his successors like
Abba Rebu (1855-59), Abba Boqa (1859-1861) and Abba
Gomol (r.1861-75).
– The most famous among the Jimma monarchs was
Tullu /Abba Jifar II (r.1875-1934).
 .

Gera: was the last of the Gibe kingdoms to

be formed.
• The process of state formation in Gera was
completed during the reign of Tullu Gunji
(r.1835-38), a successful war leader who
made himself king.
• Abba Rago I (r.1838-48) succeeded Tullu
Gunji after a short interlude by Abba Basso.
• Gera attracted Muslim missionaries to
preach Islam.
 .

C. The Leqa States: Includes Leqa-Naqamte and Leqa-

Qellam.
D. Ilu: the Tume clan leader Chali Shono (also known as Abba
Bor) set up the well consolidated state of Ilu-Abba Bor in the early
nineteenth century.
E. Nilotic Sheikdoms:
• The Sheikhdoms of Assosa or Aqoldi, Bela Shangul and
Khomosha were established to the south of Abbay River.
• They were established around the Ethio-Sudanese border.
• They were founded by Muslim leaders of Sudanese origin who
considered themselves as ‘Watawit’.
• Trade was the main reasons for the rise of these states. The rich
gold of the region also attracted foreign powers like the
Mahdists and Egyptians who attempted to control the
sheikdoms at different times.
 .

6.2. The Making of Modern Ethiopian State

• The making of the modern Ethiopian state went
through two distinct phases.
• The first one involved unifying different regions and
peoples in north and north central parts of Ethiopia.
• The second phase involved territorial expansion into
the southern parts of the country.
A. The Process of Territorial Unification
• The man who ended the Zemene Mesafint was Kasa
Hailu. He started his career by assisting his
half−brother, Dejjazmach Kinfu in defeating the
Egyptians at Wad Kaltabu (in present day eastern
Sudan) in 1837.
 .

• In 1848, Kasa also fought against the Egyptians at

a place called Dabarki. In addition, he defeated
regional lords at different battles. Accordingly
Kasa defeated:
 Dejjach Goshu Zewde of Gojjam at Gur Amba
on November 27, 1852;
 Birru Aligaz, Aben, Yazew and Belew,
(dejjazmachs of Ras Ali), at Gorgora Bichign
on April 12, 1853;
 Ras Ali at Ayshal on 29, June 1853 and
 Dejjazmach Wube of Simen and Tigray at
Deresge on 8 February, 1855.
 .

• After defeating the major regional lords, Kasa

was anointed by Abune Salama, and throne
name of Tewodros II (1855-1868), King of
Kings of Ethiopia. After Tewodros came to
power:
• He subsequently marched first to Wollo and
then to Shewa.
• He wanted to create a strong central
government
• Externally, he involved in a serious diplomatic
crises of Britain and other Europeans and etc.
 .

• At the battle of Maqdela, Emperor Tewodros

committed suicide on April 13, 1868.
Following the death of Emperor Tewodros,
three contenders to the throne emerged; namely:
Wagshum Gobeze of Lasta,
Kasa Mircha of Tigray and
Menilek of Shewa.
Wagshum Gobeze took state power immediately
after Tewodros as Emperor Tekle-Giorgis II
(1868−71). But, at the battle of Assam (near
Adwa) in July 1871, Tekle-Giorgis was defeated
by Kasa Mircha.
 .

• Later, Kasa Mircha became Emperor Yohannes

IV (1872-1889). Yohannis Iv: He attempted to
introduce a decentralized system of
administration, permitting regional rulers to
exercise a great deal of autonomy and agreement
with regional governments and etc.
Externally, Emperor Yohannes faced challenges
from Egyptians, Italians, and the Mahdists at
different times.
He lost his life fighting the latter at Metemma in
1889. As a result, the throne was assumed by
Negus Menelik of Shewa who became Emperor
Menelik II (1889-1913).
 .

B. Territorial Expansion
• Emperor Tewodros II, Emperor Yohannes IV
and others made state building their mission and
struggled their ways. The most successful of
state building was during Menilek of Shewa.
• The process of territorial expansion by Menilik
concluded through three phases i.e. when he
was king of Shewa (1865-89), from 1889-96
and the aftermath of Adwa (1896-1900). But,
Menilek's territorial expansions to western and
southwestern regions were concluded through
both forceful and peaceful submissions.
 .

• Then, the process of territorial expansion was

consummated with the singing of boundary
agreements with the neighboring colonial
powers that continued until 1908.
• The process of territorial expansion led
centralization and establishing a unitary state
continued by abolishing regional autonomies in
the early decades of the 20th century.
 .

6.3. Modernization Attempts

 The period from 1800 to 1941 also witnessed
efforts to adopt western ideas and technology by
Ethiopian monarchs.
 Several Ethiopian regional rulers and emperors
were interested in European technologies.
 Among these, modernization attempts of the
reign of Emperor Tewodros took a number of
military, administrative and socio-economic
reform measures. Such as:
 .

• He introduced military titles, like Yasr Aleqa,

Yamsa Aleqa, and Yeshi Aleqa.
• He tried to organize and replace the regional
armies of the Zemene-Mesafint with salaried
national army.
• He tried to manufacture firearms at his workshop,
Gafat (near Debre Tabor) with the help of
European missionaries and artisans.
• He produced cannons and the biggest one was
known as “Sebastopol."
• He tried to separate church and the monarchy and
reduced the church land and the number of priests
and deacons and etc.
• Emperor Yohannes' reign also witnessed several
.

important reforms and innovations. Like, he was

the first Ethiopian monarch to appoint foreign
consul who served as his representative in London.
• Modernization attempts of the reign of Emperor
Menilek had diverse elements. Like:
 establishment of a postal service and
telecommunications/ the telephone-telegraph
system
 the beginning of construction of railway line from
Djibouti to Addis Ababa
 the opening of a bank (the Bank of Abyssinia) and
the introduction of paper money.
 .

 Introduced European style ministerial

system/ministers in 1907.
 opening of a hotel in 1907 (Itege Hotel), a
modern school (Menilek II School in 1908)
 Openinig of Hospital (Russian Red Cross
hospital in 1906) and Russian-run hospital
(Menilek II Hospital in 1910) and etc.
• Besides, after Emperor Menelik II, during Lij
Iyasu and Dual rule also several reforms were
introduced.
 .

6.4. Socio-Economic Developments

The period from 1800 to 1941 was also marked by
changes in socio-economic conditions including:
• Trade: both local and long-distance trade had
flourished in the 19thc. The major commodities
traded were ivory, slaves, civet, and gold.
• Agriculture: In the 19thc and early 20thc were times
when agricultural economy grew and the demand
for land for cultivation and grazing increased.
• Urbanization and manufacturing. Factors for
these changes included the socio-economic
dynamics in the region and the world.
 .

6.5. External Relations

One consequence of the Zemene-Mesafint was the
end of the 'close door policy’ that was introduced by
Emperor Fasiladas (1632-1667). Thus, beginning
from the early 1800s, regional rulers made
independent foreign contacts and signed treaties.
During 19th c, the agents of these external relations
were mainly travelers.
One of the major diplomatic relations Yohannes
concluded was Hewett /Adwa Treaty. It was a
treaty signed between the Emperor and the British
Rear Admiral William on behalf of Egypt on 3
June 1884 at Adwa.
 .

Menelik’s relations with Italy reached its climax with

the signing of the Wuchale Treaty.
It was drafted by Count Pietro Antonelli and signed
on 2 May 1889, between Emperor Menilek II of
Ethiopia and Antonelli on behalf of Prime Minister
Crispi of Italy.
By Wuchale treaty, Italian action to colonize Ethiopia
through tricky treaties; persuasion and the
subversive methods failed.
Italian determination to occupy Ethiopia and Ethiopian
resistance against colonialism led to the battle.
This finally led to the Battle of Adwa, where
ETHIOPIA became victorious.
 .

After Adwa, Emperor Menilek made boundary

agreements with the neighboring colonial
powers. Like French-Somaliland (the present
day Djibouti) on 20 March 1897, with British-
Somaliland (now Somaliland) on June 1897,
with Anglo-Egyptian Sudan on 15 May 1902,
with the Italian colony of Eritrea on 10 July
1900 and also with British East Africa (Kenya)
in 1907 and Italian-Somaliland in 1908. These
boundary agreements shaped modern
Ethiopian boundary.
 .

One of the successes of Ethiopia’s foreign

relation in the early twentieth was her admission
to the League of Nations in 1923. Teferi made
his grand European tour which shaped his ideas
of modernization.
But, Ethiopia’s entry into the League of Nations
did not save her from Italian invasion in 1935/36.
6.5.1. Major Battles Fought Against Foreign Aggressors
.

and Patriotism
Ethiopian people fought several battles against foreign threats
in different period. Such as:
• The Battle of Dabarki (1848): was fought between Kasa
Hailu of Qwara and Egyptian forces in 1848. Although
the forces led by Kasa Hailu lost the battle.
• The Battle of Maqdela (1868): the British troops led by
Sir Robert Napier were sent through Massawa. This force
reached Maqdela guided by Dejazmach Bezibiz Kassa of
Tigray (later Emperor Yohannes) and Wagshum
Gobeze of Lasta. On April 10, 1868, Tewodros’ soldiers
including his general Gebriye were defeated by the British
at the battle of Aroge. On April 13, 1868, Tewodros
committed suicide at Maqdela.
The Battles of Gundet and Gura:
.

• In the 19th c, Egyptians showed a keen interest to

occupy Northeast Africa with the ambition of
controlling the source of the Nile.
• In 1875, Khedive Ismail Pasha sent his troops to
invade Ethiopia in three directions. First,
Mohammed Rauf Pasha led the Zeila front and
the result was the occupation of the Harar Emirate
between 1875 and 1885. Second, the Egyptian
troops led by Werner Munzinger, invaded
Ethiopia through Tajura. Finally, Colonel
Arendrup and Arakel Bey led well-armed troops
through Massawa.
• Emperor Yohannes IV and Ras Alula mobilized
.

Ethiopian forces and encountered the Egyptians at the

Battle of Gundet (16 November 1875) and the
Egyptian troops were severely defeated.
• Egyptians again reorganized their forces and sent their
army to invade Ethiopia. However, the Ethiopian
forces again defeated them at the Battle of Gura (7–9
March, 1876).
The Battle of Dogali:
• The Italian forces occupied Sa’ati, Aylet and Wia in
the then Mereb Milash region. However, they were
defeated decisively at the Battle of Dogali by Ras
Alula Engida, Emperor Yohannes’s famous general
and right hand man in 1887.
The Battle of Metemma:
.

• The Hewett Treaty caused clashes between the

Mahdist and Ethiopian forces that lasted from 1885
to 1889. The first clash was at Kufit between Ras
Alula and Mahadist in September 1885. The other,
on 9 March 1889, the battle of Metemma
Emperor Yohannis was died during fighting the
Mahdists.
• In general, Emperor Yohannes faced what can be
called the triangular tension, namely the Italians
in the north, the Mahdists in the west and
northwest, and his two vassals (Nigus Minilek &
Nigus Teklehaymanot) in the center.
Later, in another direction, the Mahdists were
.

defeated at Gute Dilli (in Najjo-Wallagga) by

Menilik’s commander Ras Gobana Dacci on 14
October 1888. Emperor Yohannes made a national
call:
The country called Ethiopia is firstly your
mother, secondly your crown, thirdly your
wife, fourthly your child, fifthly your grave.
Accordingly, rise up understanding the love of
a mother, honor of a crown, the goodness of a
wife, the delight of having a child, and the
shelter of a grave.
 .

Hence, on 9 March 1889, the Emperor marched to

Metemma where he died fighting the Mahdists.
Evidently, it has to be noted here that internal
divisions and acrimonies among rulers would
result in a huge cost to the country and its peoples.
Among others, Maqdela and Metemma are very
good testimonies.
The Battle of Adwa and Its Aftermath:
.

• The disagreement on the Wuchale Treaty finally

led to the big battle between Ethiopia and Italian
forces.
• In 1896, the Ethiopian forces led by Emperor
Menilek, Empress Taiytu and war generals and
others encountered the Italians at the battle of
Adwa. The result of this battle was a decisive
victory for Ethiopians.
• Consequently, Italy recognized the independence of
Ethiopia by the treaty of Addis Ababa that was
signed on October 26, 1896.
 .

• Furthermore, the victory of Ethiopians at Adwa has

had an enduring legacy in the relations between
freedom fighters and colonizing powers.
• The victory of black people on white colonizers
initiated entire Africans fighting against
colonialism.
6.5.2. Italian Occupation (1936-41) and the
.

Patriotic Resistance
• After the battle of Adwa, Mussolini prepared to
launch an invasion against Ethiopia was only
searching for a pretext, and then fortunately he
found it in the Walwal incident.
• The Walwal Incident (5 December 1934) was the
result of the post-Adwa boundary agreement
limitations.
• However, in 1934 the Italians refused to give back
Walwal and even attacked the Ethiopian soldiers
was known as Walwal Incident.
• In 1935, the Italians waged their aggression via two
.

major fronts: the northern and the southern Front.

The war was started in the northern Front when the
Italians crossed the Mereb River on 3 October 1935
and launched a three pronged invasion and controlled
Adigrat, Adwa and Mekelle. In January 1936,
Ethiopian counter offensive marched north through
three fronts like:
o Ras Emiru Haile-Selassie led the western front
o Ras Kasa Hailu (also commander of the entire
northern front) and
o Ras Seyum Mengesha led the central front and
Ras Mulugeta Yigezu (War Minister) led the
eastern front.
• On 20 January 1936, the Ethiopian army launched a
.

major offensive against the Italians, but failed to due to

lack of coordination among the above mentioned
commanders.
• On January 24, the Ethiopian force lost to the Italians
at the first Battle in Temben. A series of battles
between the Ethiopian and Italian forces in the
northern Front culminated in Maychew on 31 March
1936 and the Ethiopian army (especially members of
the Kebur Zebegna) under the command of the
Emperor put strong resistance against the Italians.
Many Ethiopian soldiers lost their lives from
gunpowder and air bombardment during the battle.
• The Ethiopian army in the Southern Front like Ras
.

Desta Damtew (in the south) and Dejazmach Nesibu

Zamanuel (in the southeast) were leaders of the
Ethiopian troops in this Front.
• The Ethiopian army lost to the Italians at two major
battles in the Southern Front: Qorahe (November
1935) and Genale Dorya (12-14 January 1936).
• The number of soldiers the Italians lost during the
fighting in the Southern Front was larger than the
North, which slowed their advance to the center;
Badoglio entered Addis Ababa before Graziani even
crossed Harar. Then, from 1936-41 Ethiopia was
occupied by Italian Fascist.
Generally, the legacy of the Italian rule can be
.

summarized in the following brief points:

 Architecture- the Italians left an indelible mark in
towns such as Addis Ababa, Jimma, Adwa, Gondar,
Desse, Harar, Asmara, Mogadishu and others.
 Introduction of urban facilities like clean water and
electricity;
 Social legacies (expansion of prostitution, adoption of
European habits-including eating and dressing styles,
and adoption of Italian words);
 The consolidation of cash economy;
 Road construction and development of motor
transport;
 The sense of division, etc.
The Patriotic Resistance Movement
.

• During the five-year Italian occupation (1936-41), the

Ethiopian people opposed Italians in a number of
ways.
• Ethiopian patriots continued their resistance in almost
all regions. The first phase of resistance was the
continuation of the war itself (war commonders).
• The second phase covers from 1937 to the end of the
Italian occupation in 1941. On 19 February 1937, two
young Ethiopian patriots, Abreha Deboch and Moges
Asgedom, hurled a bomb on Grazian.
• In addition, as the Fascist regime became intolerable to
Ethiopians, there were women who led their own army
in the guerrilla wars, like “Inner patriot.”
 .

Lists of a few patriots of Ethiopia:

Dejjazmach Umar Samatar,
Colonel Abdisa Aga,
Dejjazmach Belay Zeleke,
Dejjazmach Gebrehiwot Meshesha,
Dejjazmach Abbai Kahsay,
W/o Shewareged Gedle,
Zeray Dires,
Colonel Jagama Kello,
W/o Sinidu Gebru,
 .

Ras Amoraw Wubneh,

Lij Haile Mariam Mamo,
Ras Abebe Aregay,
Dejjazmach Habte Mariam,
Colonel Belay Haile-ab,
Major Matias Gemeda,
Captain Yosef Nesibu,
Blatta Takele Woldehawaryat,
Dejjach Geresu Duki,
Bekele Woya, etc.
• Ethiopian struggle for independence was associated
.

with World War II, when Italy declared war on

France and Britain on 10 June 1940.
• Mussolini decided to enter the war on the side of
Germany in the hope of securing outside support;
the internationalization of the conflict was a good
opportunity.
• Then, on 12 July 1940, London recognized the
Emperor as a full ally.
• The British launched a three pronged attack on the
Italians.
 .

• In the north, General William Plattin led the

forces that attacked the Italians in Eritrea.
• Colonel Sandford and Major Wingate
accompanied the Emperor from the Sudan into
Gojjam.
• General Cunningham led the attack from Kenya.
Then, Emperor Haile-Selassie entered Addis Ababa
on 5 May 1941, exactly five years after Italian
entry to the capital.