Energy and Energy Balances

Energy
consumption
in India
 Terminology
associated with
energy balance
Isobaric No pressure change

Isochoric  No volume change

Isothermal  No temperature change

Adiabatic No heat exchange

Under what circumstances a process can be
adiabatic?

System is insulated

Q (heat flux) is very small compared to other terms in the equation

Process is very fast

State
function
and path
function
Energy units

SI unit of energy is JOULE, J

What about calorie? Everyone is concerned

about calories…

Activity: Collect a food packet and analyze the

information about calories, Convert the calories
per serving mentioned on the packet to Joule
 Self assessment test

What is the difference between

System and surrounding?
Open system and closed system?
extensive and intensive property?
state function and path function?
TYPES OF ENERGY TO BE INCLUDED IN
ENERGY BALANCE

Kinetic energy
Potential energy
Internal energy
Heat
Work
Enthalpy

Energy is the capacity to do work and cannot be measured

directly
 Heat, Q, when used in the general energy balance, is the net amount
of heat transferred to or from the system over a fixed time interval.
 Heat is positive when transferred to the system and negative when
removed from the system. Heat is a path variable.

Self-Assessment Que stion

There can be no heat transfer between two systems that are at the same
temperature. True or false?
WORK: (“ I am going to work!!”)

 Work is a form of energy that represents a transfer of energy

between the system and surroundings. Work cannot be stored.
 Work is a path variable.
 Work is positive when the surroundings perform work on the
system. Work is negative when the system performs work on the
surroundings
 Kinetic energy (KE) is the energy a
system, or some material, possesses
because of its velocity relative to the
surroundings, which are usually, but not
always, at rest.
 The wind, moving automobiles,
waterfalls, flowing fluids, and so on
possess kinetic energy.

 Kinetic energy is given by

 m is the mass and v is the velocity

 Self-Assessment Test
Can the kinetic energy of a mass be zero if
the mass has a velocity, that is, is moving?
 Potential energy (PE) is
energy a system possesses
because of the force exerted
on its mass by a gravitational
or electromagnetic field with
respect to a reference
surface.

 M is the mass, g is the

acceleration due to gravity, h
is the distance from reference
material

Self assessment:
The units of potential energy or kinetic energy is -------------------
 Internal energy U of a system or a body with well defined boundaries
is the total of the kinetic energy due to the motion of molecules and
the potential energy associated with the vibrational motion and
electric energy of atoms within molecules.
U=KE+PE
 Internal energy also includes the energy in all the chemical bonds
 Internal energy is a state function of a system and is an extensive
quantity.
 No instruments exist with which to measure internal energy directly,
internal energy must be calculated from certain other variables that
can be measured macroscopically, such as pressure, volume,
temperature, and composition
 For a closed system the internal energy is essentially defined by
ΔU = q + W

 Where
 U is the change in internal energy of a system during a process
 q is the heat
 W is the mechanical work.
Discussion Question

Richard Feynman was a brilliant physicist and comedian who invested a

great amount of effort in making physics accessible to students. In one
of his lectures, he wrote: “Let us consider a rubber band. When we
stretch the rubber band, we find that its temperature _________.” Fill in
the missing word for the professor.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=baXv_5z7HVY
 Enthalpy H of a
thermodynamic system is
defined as the sum of its
internal energy and the
product of its pressure and
volume:

H = U + pV,
 where U is the internal
energy, p is pressure, and V is
the volume of the system.
 Enthalpy is an
extensive property;
 Enthalpy is a measure of heat
change of the system
Heat capacity and specific heat capacity (C)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zuHB9-ZyIeQ
Heat capacity is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature
of a body by 1o C.

Specific Heat capacity is the amount of heat required to raise the

temperature of 1 Kg of mass by 1o C

C=dq/dT

CV = Heat capacity at constant volume

CP= Heat capacity at constant pressure

For ideal gases, CP –CV =R; For monoatomic gases, CV=3/2 R

Empirical equation for heat capacity; CP =a+bT+CT2 , a, b, c are constants T is
temperature in Kelvin (K)
ADDITIONAL TERMINOLOGY
Additional terminology
 Additional terminology

 heat of formation, also called standard heat of formation, enthalpy of formation, or

standard enthalpy of formation, the amount of heat absorbed or evolved when
one mole of a compound is formed from its constituent elements, each
substance being in its normal physical state (gas, liquid, or solid).
Additional Terminology
Additional terminology

S(s) + O2(g) → SO2(g) ΔH = -296.9 kJ

SO2(g) → S(s) + O2(g) ΔH = +296.9 kJ
Additional terminology
Additional terminology
 Additional
terminology
 A term called the adiabatic reaction
(theoretical flame or combustion)
temperature is defined as the
temperature obtained from a
combustion process when
 The reaction is carried out under
adiabatic conditions; that is, there
is no heat interchange between
the system in which the reaction
occurs and the surroundings
 No other effects occur, such as
electrical effects, work, ionization,
free radical formation, and so on
 The limiting reactant reacts
completely
 The temperature attained when a fuel is burned in air or oxygen without gain or loss of heat
is termed as theoretical flame temperature
 The assumption made is that no mechanical work is involved and only energy terms present
are internal energy and flow work. The actual composition of the products must be known
including presence of unreacted reactants and the method is not applicable to first fraction
of a second required to attain equilibrium values of heat capacities.
 The maximum flame temperature is attained when fuel is burned with theoretically required
amount of oxygen. The maximum adiabatic flame temperature with air is lower that tat with
pure oxygen. Because of the necessity of using excess air in order to ensure complete
combustion, actual flame temperature is less than maximum value.
 For example, the adiabatic flame temperature for the combustion of CH4 with theoretical air
has been calculated to be 2010°C; allowing for incomplete combustion at equilibrium, it
would be 1920°C. The actual temperature when measured is 1885°C.
 The adiabatic reaction temperature tells you the temperature ceiling of a process.
 The adiabatic reaction temperature helps you select the types of materials that must be
specified for the equipment in which the reaction is taking place (safe handling)
UNIT 5
1. Energy balance
2. Humidity and saturation
 Energy balance without reaction

General mass
balance of the
system
Now replace
mass with the
term energy

The last 2 terms will be neglected because there is no reaction

1. Energy Balances on unsteady state Closed
Systems
Closed System–no material crosses the system boundary over a period
of time (e.g., batch process).
• Accumulation = Input –Output , is not zero

Although no mass crosses the boundaries, energy input # 0 and energy

Output#0 since energy can be transferred across the boundary.
In closed systems, the values of ΔPE and ΔKE in ΔE are usually
negligible or zero; hence, ΔU = Q + W used as the energy balance.

If the sum of Q and W is positive, ΔE increases; if negative, ΔE

decreases.
Self Assessment questions:

1.A closed tank contains 20 lb of water. If 200 Btu are added to the
water, what is the change in internal energy of the water?
2.Can heat be completely converted to work?
 2. Energy Balances for a Steady state Closed System
 steady-state means the accumulation in the system is zero, and that
closed means that no mass flow occurs across the system boundary.
Only Q and W may occur during a time interval.
 What does energy balance Equation reduce to?

 If you set W = –Q, you can conclude that all of the work done on a
closed, steady-state system must be transferred out as heat (–Q)
 However, ironically, the reverse is false
3. Energy balance for steady state open
systems  Most of industrial processes operate
under approximately continuous, open,
steady-state conditions. Most processes
in the refining and chemical industries
are open, steady-state systems.
 general energy balance Equation that
applies to steady-state, open processes:
Accumulation ΔE = 0. Consequently,
Equation becomes

 Because the energy terms in the energy

balance in most open processes are
dominated by Q, W, the equation most
commonly applied to open, steady-state
processes does not include any
potential and kinetic energy changes
  Humidity is defined as the water-
vapour content of the air.
 Normal atmospheric air in most of
the cases is humid.
UNIT 5-2.  Humid air is also called moist air.
The capacity of air to hold
Humidity moisture
temperature.
increases with

and  But one should not be in confusion

that in summer, air should be more
saturation humid compared to other seasons.
 This is because air may have more
capacity to hold water, but we
require source of water as well
Measuring humidity
 The instruments used are called hygrometers or
psychrometers.
 These instruments have a pair of thermometers,
one of them having its bulb covered with wet
muslin cloth.
 The thermometer with wet bulb muslin cloth on its
bulb records wet-bulb temperature and the other
one records dry-bulb temperature.
 These two temperatures along with barometric
pressure is used in calculating humidity

 Dry bulb temperature:

 It is the temperature recorded by using a
conventional thermometer.
 The thermometer without muslin cloth in the
psychrometer records dry-bulb temperature.
 It just reads the ordinary temperature of the air and
is a measure of sensible heat content of the air.
 Its unit is OF or OC or kelvin (K).
Wet bulb temperature:
 It is recorded by thermometer having
wet muslin cloth on its bulb.
 The temperature recorded is in
general lower than dry-bulb
temperature because of cooling
effect of the evaporating water of
wet muslin cloth.
 They are equal only when air is in
saturation and no net evaporation of
water from wet muslin cloth takes
place.
 Wet- bulb temperature can never be
higher than dry-bulb temperature.
 It is a measure of the evaporating
capacity of the air.
 Its unit is OF or OC or kelvin (K).
• Relative saturation (relative humidity) is defined as

• where pvapor = partial pressure of the vapor in the gas mixture.

p* = partial pressure of the vapor in the gas mixture if the gas is
saturated at the given temperature of the mixture
• If you listen to the radio or TV and hear the announcer say that the
temperature is 25°C and the relative humidity is 60%, he or she
implies that

Humidity, H, (specific humidity) is the mass (in pounds or kilograms)

of water vapor per unit mass (in pounds or kilograms) of bone-dry air
(some texts use moles of water vapor per mole of dry air as the humidity):
Psychrometric charts