Course

Contents
1. Background
2. Generator Connections
3. Generator Grounding
4. Faults
5. Protection
• Zones of Protection
• Ground Fault Protection
• Phase Fault Protection
• Field Protection
• Loss of Field

1
 Course
Contents
• Unbalanced Current Protection
• Overload Protection
• Reverse Power
• Overexcitation
• Overvoltage
• Abnormal Frequency
• Out of Step
• System Backup

2
Energy Conversion
Process
Speed/Frequency
Control

Synchronous
Generator

Energy Mechanical Electric

Input Rotating Shaft Power
Energy
Conversion

Excitation
System

3
How a Generator
Works

4
 Generator
Equation
• Operation principle of a Generator is based on Electromagnetic
Induction, which is defined by Faraday’s Law, which states:

For additional details go to:

https://opentextbc.ca/physicstestbook2/chapter/electric-generators/
5
 Synchronous
Generators
• Operates at System Frequency
• Ability to Control Reactive In/Out (Voltage)
• Vast Majority of Power is Generated Using
Synchronous Generators
• Variety of Prime Movers - Steam, Water,
Reciprocating Engines, Wind, etc.
 Exciters & Voltage
Regulators

• Exciter - An auxiliary generator used to provide field

current for a larger generator or alternator
• Voltage Regulator – Controls operation of exciter to
provide proper control of field current

7
 Self
Excited

Note: Occasionally Phase CT’s used to provide exciter power during short circuits
(Series Boost)
Cummins T-030 Application manual 8
 Separately
Excited

Cummins T-030 Application manual 9

 Generator
Protection
Power-system protection is a branch of electrical
power engineering that deals with the protection of
electrical power systems from faults through the
disconnection of faulted parts from the rest of the
electrical network.

10
Device Function Device
21 Phase Distance Function
51V
24
Voltage Controlled/Restrained Overcurrent
Volts per Hertz
Numbers
32 Reverse Power (ANSI C37.2)
40 Loss of Field
46 Negative Sequence Overcurrent
50/51 Instantaneous/Time Delayed Overcurrent
50/51GN
Instantaneous/Time Delayed Overcurrent in Gen Neutral
51TN
Time Overcurrent Relay in GSU Neutral
59
Overvoltage
59GN
Ground Overvoltage
60
Voltage Balance
63
Fault Pressure
64F
Rotor Ground Fault

81
Frequency (Over or Under)
87
Phase Differential

11
Unit Connected
Scheme

C37.102 Figure 7-1

12
 How is the Generator Relay
Set
• Customer may have Standards that determine how the unit is protected. If
not utility standard practices are followed.
• Project manager and customer set the schedule and budget.
• Relay setting engineers develop the settings and produce a settings report
and settings files that are to be loaded into the digital relays.
• Checking engineers will review and separately calculate the settings to verify
the settings engineers work.
• All discrepancies are reported back to the settings engineer.
• A final set of settings and final settings report is then produced
• Checking engineers will verify the discrepancies have been properly
addressed.
• The Poject Manager then sends the final report and final settings files to the
customer.
• Customer/contractor technicians will install the relay into the relay panels.
Any discrepancies will be noted to the design and settings engineers

13
 How is the Generator Relay
Set
• Customer may then have comments and request changes
• Settings engineer will address the customer comments and the
checking engineer will verify the changes
• Commissioning engineers will then be given the settings files
and
settings report and load the settings into the digital relays.
• Commissioning engineers will then run simulations of the system
faults to verify the settings provide proper operation of the relay.
• Any discrepancies go back to the settings engine er who will
determine if the commissioning comments are valid and if valid will
make the appropriate changes.
• Checking engineer will validate the changes in the settings and
inform the settings engineers if OK or not.
• When this is completed and the relay is ready to be put in service the
final settings and final settings report is sent to the customer for their
files.
14
False Trip – An unnecessary or incorrect
trip
• Can cost the owner millions of dollars in lost
revenue and penalties
• Could cause a system blackout that may take hours
or days to re-establish the grid voltage.
• Can be detrimental to the setting engineers career

15
 Per Unit
Values
• Per Unit quantities are typically used to characterize
a large generator. (abbreviated PU or p.u.)
• 1 per unit is a value representing nominal voltage
and nominal MVA of the unit.
• For Example: 1409 MVA ,25kV P-P Generator
• 1PU voltage = 25000 V. phase to phase (14,434V. Phase to
ground)
• 1 PU Current = 1409 x 106/1.732*25000 = 32,549.5
amps
• 1 PU Impedance = V/I = (25000/1.732)/32549.5 = 0.443
ohms
• Resistive value of generator impedance is typically very
small and can be ignored

16
Example of Per Unit Values
at CT & VT Secondaries
• With 40000:5 CT and 210:1 VT
• 1PU voltage = 14434V./210 = 68.7 volts
1PU Current = 32549.5 A./8000 = 4.06 A.
• 1PU Impedance = 68.7V./4.06A. = 16.9
ohms

17
 Generator
Protection
• Most Comprehensive Protection of any Power System
Component
• Internal Faults
• External Faults
• Abnormal System Conditions
• Prime Mover Disturbances

18
Generator/System
Connection
• Unit Connected
• Directly Connected
• Multiple Units Bus Connected
• Unconnected (Isolated Load)

19
 Unit
Connected
• Used for large units
• Delta – Wye step up transformer used to provide
zero sequence isolation between the generator and
the system
• Plant auxiliary loads fed from generator output
• Requires independent auxiliary source for startup
and shutdown

20
 Unit Connected
Generator One Line
diagram
Generator

Power System
Z

Auxiliary Load

21
 Unit
Connected

Generator Unit Circuit

Transformer Breaker

CB

22
 High Impedance Grounding
Generator Unit Circiit
Transformer Breaker

CB

Grounding
Transformer R

23
 High Impedance
Grounding
• Limit Ground Fault Current to 5 – 10 amps.
• Distribution Transformer & Secondary Resistor
typically used to create high value resistance.
• Phase Differential Relays will not see fault
• Difficult to detect ground faults near the
neutral
• Faults at terminals create full neutral voltage
shift
• Transient Overvoltage limits maximum value of
impedance that can be used
24
 High Impedance Grounding
Generator Unit Circiit
Transformer Breaker

CB

If
Grounding
Transformer R

R' = Vlg/If R = R'/N2

25
 Large Main
Generator

Note: Reactance values are in per unit

26
 P-P Generator Fault
Current
Generator Unit Circiit
Transformer Breaker

CB

Grounding
Transformer R

When CB opens fault Current from system stops.

Fault Current from Generator continues.

27
 Object of Protection
System
• Detect fault conditions (sensitivity)
• Perform correctly when needed (reliability)
• Ignore faults outside the primary or backup zones of protection
(selectivity)
• Operate rapidly, minimize damage (speed)
• Tolerable system cost vs. unit importance
• Minimum equipment used (simplicity)

28
 Setting Example – Ground
Fault
• Line to ground voltage = 14434 V (25kV P-P)
• Grounding Transformer Ratio = 14400/240 = 60
• Maximum Voltage = 14434/60 = 240.6 V
• Setting of 5.6 volts should give protection for 98%
of stator winding.
• Exact coverage depends on residual 60Hz in neutral
with unit on line (5 to 10 V. typical setting)
• Time delay used for coordination with VT fuses and
system faults

29
 100% Ground Fault
Protection
• To protect stator winding for faults close to Neutral a
Supplementary Scheme is required
• Third Harmonic Undervoltage – Available in most
multi-function digital relays
• Sub-harmonic Injection - Injects low frequency signal
in neutral and measures impedance to ground (very
large units)
• Undetected ground fault poses serious hazard if
subsequent ground fault occurs

30
 Third Harmonic
Undervoltage
• Third Harmonic in three phases add as Zero
Sequence current in Neutral
• A fault near the neutral will shunt harmonic
currents around grounding impedance
• Use UV Relay 27TN tuned to measure Third
Harmonic only
• Loss of signal, Undervoltage = TRIP
• Supervise with Phase Voltage or Third Harmonic
Differential Scheme
• Not operating with unit off line

31
Third Harmonic UV Relays
(27TN) IC3

IB3
C

IA3
C
VAN
C
GND
Fault

IN = 0

59N 27TN
59N Relay Setting
≈ 5 to 10 V
Ground near neutral not detected
50/51
GN

32
 Third Harmonic UV
• Level ofRelays
third harmonic varies with generator design
• Level of third harmonic varies with real & reactive
power output
• Set at 50% of lowest level measured
• Measurements required to determine setting

33
Voltage Injection

Generator Unit Circuit

Transformer Breaker

CB

Grounding
Transformer R

Injection system can measure

Injection impedance to ground and
Oscillator
Test
provide alarm levels
Ground Fault
Detection
Relay

34
Phase Fault
Protection
 Phase
Faults
• Very serious fault type, high fault currents
• High Speed differential relay used
• Detects all types of phase faults and P-P-G faults
• Will detect most ground faults on Low R grounded
machines
• Must be reliable during current transformer
saturation for high current external faults

36
 Phase Fault
Protection
• Variable % Differential Scheme most widely used
(low impedance)
• High Impedance Scheme also available
• High Z grounded units – ground fault current below
threshold of relay
• Will not detect a turn – turn fault

37
Percentage
Differential
Ia IA

IO

O
R R
Ia IA

87

Restraint = (IA + Ia)/2

Operate = IA - Ia

Pickup Value of Operate Coil

Varies with Restraint Current,
Dual Slope Popular
38
 Percentage
Differential
• External faults create high values of restraint
current and desensitize relay to allow for CT
saturation
• Internal faults produce minimum values of restraint
and sensitive tripping
• CFD Delay of 20-40 ms. (Old electro-mecchanical
relay)
• Setting of 0.2 amps secondary current, varies with
restraint current

39
 Phase Fault
Backup
• Large Units often use backup protection
• Unit Connected generators use overall differential
scheme
• Overall Differential covers generator, bus, step up
transformer, and unit auxiliary transformer
• Harmonic Restraint required due to transformer
coverage in protection zone
• Distance Relay (21) with CT in neutral

40
Overall Differential –
87/U
87O

Power System
Z

Auxiliary Load

Unit Connected Generator

41
Field Ground
Protection
 Field Ground Protection
(64F)
• Field Circuit Insulated from Ground
• One Ground on field does not effect operation of
generator
• A Second Ground on the field will short a portion of
the field winding
• Unbalanced air gap fluxes will cause vibration and
quickly damage unit
• Detection of first ground essential

43
 Field Ground
Relay
Rotor

Varistor
+ Field Breaker
R1

Exciter

R2 64F

44
Field Ground
Protection
Rotor
Brush

Field Breaker
Exciter

Brush

64F
Grounding
Brush

DC
Source

45
 Brushless
Machines

• Conventional Relays do not work

• Add Pilot Brushes to connect to rotating field circuit
• Momentary brush connection used to avoid wear
and dusting
• Bridge circuit used to detect shorted winding
capacitance to ground
• Can be manual or automatic

46
Pilot
Brushes Rotor

Field Breaker
Exciter

Pilot
Brush

C1 CR
C2

64F
Field Ground Shorts AC
CR, Unbalances R Source
Bridge R

58
Pilot Brush is periodicly put in contact with Field Circuit
 Voltage Signal
Injection
• Inject a low frequency signal between field winding
and ground
• Measurement of resistance to ground can detect
insulation deterioration or short circuit
• Measures insulation levels in real time
• Can provide warning of low resistance prior to field
ground relay operation

48
 Injection
Scheme
• Amplitude of Return Signal Rotor

depends on Rotor Leakage R

+

Field Breaker
Exciter

R
Injected
Signal C
Squarewave
R
Generator

Signal R
C
Return
Measuring
Unit

Coupling Network

49
 Loss of Field
(40)
• LOF Detrimental to System and Generator
• LOF Condition should be quickly detected and the unit
tripped
• Generator will speed up and operate as an induction
generator w/o field current
• Reactive power drawn from the system will depress
system voltage

50
 Loss of Field
Effects
• Low system voltage/collapse
• High rotor surface temp due to slip
• Stator temperature increases due to high current
(up to 2 pu. If operating at full load)

51
 Loss of Field
Protection
• Large machines use impedance relay(s) located on
the machine terminals.
• Impedance relays set to coordinate protection with
minimum excitation limiter, steady state stability
limit, and machine capability curve

52
 Impedance
Protection
• Impedance Relay Measures:
• Z = V/I = R+jX
• Plot on Impedance Plane R – Horizontal axis X
– Vertical axis
• Compares measured Z vs. operating
characteristic

53
Reactive Capability
Curve

54
 Two Zone Offset mho Relay -
1

CEH Relay
Scheme

55
 Two Zone Offset mho Relay -
2

KLF Relay
Scheme

56
 Loss of Field Coordination
100
P-Q Plane

P (MW)
0
-100 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700

-100

-200

-300

-400

Q (MVAR)
-500
GCC

-600 SSSL 3L

LOF1
-700
LOF11

MEL
-800

Max
MW
-900 69
 Loss of Field Coordination
R-X Plane
10

R(Ohms)
0
-30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30

-5

-10

-15

-20

-25

-30
Gen CC
LOF -35

SSSL 3L
MEL -40
X(Ohms)
Dir EL
-45
70
Unbalanced
Current
(46)
 Unbalanced
Currents
• Unbalanced load currents, Negative Sequence, induce double
frequency current in the rotor surface
• Induced rotor currents cause rapid heating of rotor surface,
retaining
rings, slot wedges and possibly the field winding
• Can be caused by unbalanced load, open phases, system
faults

72
 Unbalanced
Currents
• ANSI C50.12 and ANSI C50.13 specify the continuous
capability of a generator to withstand unbalance
2
in terms
of Negative Sequence current and time (I2
t)

Type ofPole
Salient Generator
with connected amortisseur windings Permissible I10
2
%
Salient Pole with non-connected amortisseur windings 5
Cylindrical rotor – indirectly cooled 10
Cylindrical rotor – directly cooled (to 960 MVA) 8
Cylindrical rotor – directly cooled (961 to 1200 MVA) 6
Cylindrical rotor – directly cooled (1201 to 1500 MVA) 5
 Unbalanced
Currents
• Thermal capability expressed in terms of per unit rated current and time
2

Type of Generator Permissible (I2 2t)

Salient Pole 40
Synchronous Condenser 30
Cylindrical Rotor
Indirectly Cooled 30
Directly Cooled (0 10
– 800 MVA) Per Curve*
Directly Cooled
(801 - 1600 MVA) 2
* I2 t = 10 – 0.00625(MVA-800)

62
 Negative Sequence Relays
(46)
• Extract Negative Sequence Current from three
phase currents
• I2Threshold adjustable in % of PU current
• Thermal curve (I 22t = K) included with K values
settable based on generator capability
• Alarm setting with fixed time delay to alert
operators
• Must ensure 46 delay is longer than system relays
that detect unbalanced faults

63
46 Time
Curves

64
Reverse
Power
(32)
 Reverse Power
(32)
• Motoring caused when energy to prime mover is lost
(i.e.: turbine trip)
• Generator is driven by system as a synchronous motor
which drives the prime mover
• Prime mover components can be damaged by
motoring ( turbine blade heating, turbine gears, un-
ignited diesel fuel in exhaust)

66
 Reverse
• Level ofPower
reverse power depends on prime mover
• Diesel Engines – 5-25%
• Hydro Turbines – 0.2 to 2% (dry)
• Steam Turbines – 0.5 to 3%
• High level of reactive power flow with small level of
reverse power
• Low Forward Power flow, (Under power) is an
alternative scheme

67
Reverse Power
(32) Q
Reverse Forward
Power Flow Power Flow

-1 PU 1 PU

TRIP
Pickup
P

Reverse Power
Relay
Characteristics
68
Overexcitati
on
(24)
 Over
Excitation
• Generators rated for 5% overvoltage at rated
frequency
• Transformers rated for 10% overvoltage at no load,
5% at full load 80%PF
• V/Hz used to determine level of core flux
• Saturation of magnetic core result of V/Hz ratios
above 1.05 pu
• During saturation flux flows outside of core

70
 Over
Excitation
• Thermal problems occur if level is not reduced
• Protection based on V/Hz vs. time curves for
Generator and Transformer
• Inverse time V/Hz relay used to model equipment
capability curves
• Definite time units used for alarm and fast tripping
at maximum level

71
 Overexcitation
Protection

Overexcitation Curves
150.0
145.0
140.0
135.0
130.0 Generator
Volts/Hz (%)

125.0
120.0
Tra sformer
115.0
n
110.0
Relay
105.0
100.0
95.0

A0.l0ar
9

m 0.01 0.10 1.00 10.00 100.00

Time (min)

72
 Overvoltage
(59)
• Excess voltage can damage insulation
• V/Hz uses ratio of voltage to frequency and may not
detect overvoltage at higher than nominal
frequency
• Causes include over speed after load rejection
(Hydro Units)
• Not useful as V/Hz protection, may provide limited
backup

73
 Abnormal Frequency
Protection (81O/U)

• Generator and Turbine have operational frequency

limitations
• Generators:
• Mechanical components aging
• Thermal considerations
• Turbines:
• Blade fatigue
• Blade resonant frequencies

• Turbine limitations are more restrictive

than generators

74
 Generator/Transformer
• Transformer/Generator Overexcitation due to low
frequency operation
• Reduced ventilation at reduced frequencies reduces
KVA capability
• IEC 34-3 limits operational range to ±2% continuous
or +3/-5% short durations
• Mechanical resonances can be excited
• Double frequency resonances excited by Negative
Sequence current

75
IEC 34-
3

Time Restricted
Operating
Zone

61.8 Hz
57 Hz

Continuous Operation

Generator Operation over ranges of voltage and frequency

76
 Turbin
e
• Blade fatigue is cumulative and non-reversible
• Blades designed with resonance frequencies
displaced from 60Hz harmonics
• Off frequency operation may excite the
resonance
• Turbine manufacturers provide operating limits vs.
frequency

77
78
Frequency Protection
81O/U
• System load shedding should operate to prevent
operation in prohibited regions
• Underfrequency tripping should coordinate with
system load shedding plans of Regional
Coordinating Council (RCC) and turbine limitations
• Unnecessary tripping can cause system collapse
during overload conditions
• RCC may require load shedding that is equal to MVA
of unit tripped

79
Frequency Protection
81O/U
• Modern digital relays have multiple steps of
protection available
• Settings should allow for expected system
frequency drop and recovery based on load
shedding plans
• Trip time delays should be allow for system recovery
time
• Over frequency settings should coordinate with
governor response time

80
 Coordinatio
n is necessary to ensure that the
• Coordination
UFLS program can operate to restore a
balance between generation and load to
stabilize frequency at a sustainable operating
condition.
• The UFLS program always should be allowed
to take action well before tripping a
generating unit for turbine protection.

81
Out of Step
Protection(78)

82
 Stability
Model
X'G XT XS
Power
In
Power Out
VG
E
V S
G
P = |VG|•|VS| •Sin(δ)
X

VS
Where: EG = Internal Generator EMF under
transient conditions
VS = System Equivalent Voltage
X’G = Generator transient reactance
XT = Transformer impedance
XS = Equivalent system impedance
83
 Loss of
Synchronism
• In a steady state condition the Power Angle (δ) is
constant
• A disturbance in power flow will cause an oscillation
of the angle δ around a new operating point
• If the disturbance is to large, δ will continue to
increase & machine is operating at a different
frequency than system
• Unit is now out of Synchronism

84
 Simplified
System

Generator Infinite System

PMax
P = |VG|*|VS| *Sin(δ)
X
P

0 90 180
Angle
85
 Simplified
System
P

Generator Infinite System

PMax
2 Lines

1 Line
P

0 90 180 98
Angle
 Fault
Effects
• During a fault the generator rotor angle advances, 3
phase fault is worst case
• 3 phase fault near generator results in maximum
acceleration of generator, voltage approximately
zero
• Prime mover accelerates rotor
• Clearing Time becomes the critical parameter for
stability

87
 Simplified
Power
System
Input Fault on Line

Turbine
Generator Infinite System

• During Fault the machine is unloaded but prime mover still operating
• Generator speed increases due to unbalance in power

88
Rotor Angle

Swing Curve
Unstable Swing
180

135
Stable Swing
Angle

90

45

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Time

Fault
Clears

89
 Equal Area
Criteria
Two Lines

Generator
Deceleration

One Line
Max. Angle

A2
P
Final Operating Point
During Fault
A1
Generator
Acceleration 0 180
Trip An9g0l
Fault
e

90
 Out of Step Relay
(78)
• Relay should distinguish between stable and
unstable swings
• Single blinder 78 scheme provides
discrimination between stable and unstable
swings
• Multiple other schemes also available

91
Single Blinder
(78) X

XS
A B

XL
R
XT

X'd

B Pickup

A Pickup

MHO
Element

Blinders

Relay at Transformer
104
High Voltage Terminals
Single Blinder
(78) X

A XS
B

XL
R
XT

δ
X'
d

δ = Power Angle
Set δ ≈ 120º to calculate
blinders

93
 Single Blinder
(78)
1.Impedance changes from 1 to 6 during swing
X
2.MHO unit and Blinder A Pickup
3.Blinder A & B Pickup, timer starts
A XS B
4.Timer measures time between blinders
5.Blinder A resets, if Time > setting , Trip
XL
6.Some schemes wait until MHO unit resets to
R
achieve better tripping angle
XT
6 5 4 3 2 1
7. MHO unit prevents tripping on swings
out in transmission system
X'd

• At point 4 angle δ = 180º

• Breaker tripping duty reduced by
tripping at point 5 or 6

94
Single Blinder
(78) X

A XS B

XL
R
XT Stable

Unstable

δ
X' Swing Locus
d

δ = Power Angle

95
 Out of
Step
• High levels of transient shaft torque are developed
during swings
• If resonant frequency of shaft ≈ slip frequency, the
shaft can be damaged
• High peak currents cause stator overheating
• Generator should be tripped during
first slip cycle

96
System Backup
(21) or
Protection
(51V)

97
 System Backup
Protection
• Protect against failure of system relays
• Time delayed protection for Phase and Ground
Faults
• Must have enough sensitivity to detect system
faults
• Coordination with system relays essential for
security of scheme
• Secure for load and stable swings

98
 Phase Backup
Protection
• Use Phase Distance relay (21) when coordinating
with distance type system relays.
• Use Voltage Controlled/Restrained (51V)
Overcurrent relay when coordinating with feeder
overcurrent relays (smaller units)

99
 System Phase Backup
(21) A I1
B
Generator
IG IT

Power System
I2
21

• 21 Relay set to see phase faults in transformer and transmission system

• Failure of Breaker A to trip results in 21 relay trip
• Settings must include infeed effects
• Δ:Y Step Up connection requires 30º Phase shift compensation
• Use of 1 or 2 Zones dependent on system relays

100
Phase Backup
(21)

ZL

Ci r
Dia cle
met
er

XT

XG

101
Dual Zone
21

ZL
Zon
e2

Zon
e1 XT

XG

102
Protected Zones
(21)
Generator

Power System
21

Zone 1

Zone 2

103
 Loadability
Concerns
• 21 relay reach can encroach on load region.
• Reach must be reduced in operating region to allow
max output from generator

104
 NERC Method 1 & 2 Limits
21 Relay Loadability Plot
20

15

Rated MVA

10

5
PF Line

NERC

0
-15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20
1PU Ohms R(Ohms)
MTA
P Dist
+ PF
-5
-PF
Center
Max MVA
NERC 1 X(Ohms)
NERC 2
-10 117
 System Ground Fault
Backup
• Unit connected generators use ground relay in step up transformer
neutral
• Direct connected generators use a overcurrent relay in the
generator
neutral
• Set above system relays with time coordination

106
 Ground Fault Backup
(451N/T)
Generator

Power System
51N

• Set above the settings of the system relays

• Time coordination used to ensure primary and backup system relays
trip first

107
 One
Line
• Complete unit protection
• Adaptable for High or
Low R grounding
• Must consider how to
provide backup protection
• Reduces wiring and panel
costs

Reprinted from Beckwith M-3425 Instruction Book 121

Typical
Wiring

109
The
End

110