Multiplexing

Definition:
 The set of techniques that allows the simultaneous transmission of multiple signals

across a single data link is commonly referred to as Multiplexing.

 Multiplexing is done by using the hardware that is called as Multiplexer(MUX).
 The Multiplexer(MUX) mainly combines 'n' input lines in order to generate '1'

output line(this is simply many-to-one) on the sender side.

 On the receiver side, this stream is fed into the demultiplexer(DEMUX), which

then separates the stream back to its component transmission (this is one-to-

many).
 The word link refers to the physical path, and the word
channel simply refers to the portion of the link that carries a
transmission between a given pair of lines. Thus 1 link can
have many channels.
History of the Multiplexing
 Early in the 1870s, telegraphy gave rise to multiplexing, which is now
commonly used in communication.
 The multiplexing technique is commonly used in telecommunications to
carry several phone calls over a single line.
 In 1910, George Owen Squier invented telephone carrier multiplexing.
 Why Do We Need Multiplexing?
 collisions are avoided
 minimizes the number of physical connections
 Bandwidth is effectively utilized
Types of Multiplexers
There are two main types of multiplexers including analog and digital which
are further subdivided.
1. Analog Multiplexing
 It is used for telecommunication that involves signals which are analog in
nature.
 These are analog signals that are multiplexed according to
 Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
 Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM).

2. Digital Multiplexing
 Digital multiplexing helps organizations in sending multiple signals over a
single channel.
 The available data is in form of packets and frames that are discrete.
Frequency Division Multiplexing

 Frequency-Divison Multiplexing i.e FDM is an analog technique.

 With this technique, signals having different frequencies are combined in a
composite signal and then transmitted on the link
 It is mainly applied at the time when the bandwidth of the link is
greater than the combined bandwidths of the signal to be transmitted.
 The channel is usually separated by the strips of unused bandwidth that is
the guard bands in order to prevent the signals from overlapping.
 In the case of frequency division multiplexing, suppose the input signal is
in the digital form then it must be converted to analog before giving it as
the input to the modulator.
Frequency division multiplexing
FDM System
FDM of Three Voiceband Signals
Analog Carrier Systems
 Hierarchy of FDM schemes
 Group
◦ 12 voice channels (4kHz each) = 48kHz
◦ Range 60kHz to 108kHz

 Super group
◦ 60 channel
◦ FDM of 5 group signals on carriers between 420kHz and 612 kHz

 Master group
◦ 10 super groups
 Advantages
 The Simultaneous transmission of a large number of signals is
done easily.
 The demodulation of FDM multiplexing is easy.
 There is no need for synchronization between the transmitter
and receiver for proper operation.
 In the case of slow narrowband fading, there is only one single
channel that gets affected.
 Disadvantages
 Communication channels must have a very large bandwidth.
 There occurs the problem of crosstalk while using FDM.
 In the case of wideband fading, all channels in the FDM gets
affected.
 There is a need for a large number of filters and modulators.
 Applications
 One of the main applications of FDM is that it is AM and FM
radio broadcasting.
 Another application of FDM is that it is used in television
broadcasting.
 FDM is also used by first-generation cellular telephones.
 Time Division Multiplexing

 Time Division Multiplexing technique, the total time available in the

channel is distributed among different users.
 Each user is allocated with different time interval known as a Time slot at
which data is to be transmitted by the sender.
 A user takes control of the channel for a fixed amount of time.
 In Time Division Multiplexing technique, data is not transmitted
simultaneously rather the data is transmitted one-by-one.
 In TDM, the signal is transmitted in the form of frames.
 Frames contain a cycle of time slots in which each frame contains one or
more slots dedicated to each user.
There are two types of TDM:

 Synchronous TDM:-

Synchronous time division multiplexing assigns a fixed time slot to each

connected device, whether the device transmits data or not.

 Asynchronous TDM:-

Asynchronous time division multiplexing, time slots are flexible, and

assigned when connected devices have data that is ready to send.
Synchronous TDM

 A Synchronous TDM is a technique in which time slot is preassigned to every

device.
 In Synchronous TDM, each device is given some time slot irrespective of the fact
that the device contains the data or not.
 If the device does not have any data, then the slot will remain empty.
 In Synchronous TDM, signals are sent in the form of frames. Time slots are
organized in the form of frames. If a device does not have data for a particular
time slot, then the empty slot will be transmitted.
 The most popular Synchronous TDM are T-1 multiplexing, ISDN multiplexing,
and SONET multiplexing.
 If there are n devices, then there are n slots.
 Concept Of Synchronous TDM

Each device is allocated with some time slot. The time slots are
transmitted irrespective of whether the sender has data to send or not.
TDM System
Disadvantages Of Synchronous TDM:

 The capacity of the channel is not fully utilized as the empty

slots are also transmitted which is having no data.
 The speed of the transmission medium should be greater than
the total speed of the input lines.
Charecteristics of TDM
 1. Efficient use of bandwidth
 2. Flexibility
 3. Reliability
 4. Scalability
 5. Cost-effectiveness
 6. Compatibility
 7. Improved data transmission speed
 8. Security
Applications
 Telecommunications
 Broadcast and multimedia
 Digital signal processing
 Networking
 Industrial automation
 Radar systems
 Time-sensitive applications
 Video surveillance
 TDM Link Control
 Time of the link is divided into fixed size intervals called
as time slots or time slices.
 Time slots are allocated to the stations in Round Robin
manner.
TDM Link Control
 Flow control
◦ Data rate of multiplexed line is fixed
◦ If one channel receiver can not receive data, the others must
carry on
◦ The corresponding source must be quenched
◦ This leaves empty slots
 Error control
◦ Errors are detected and handled by individual channel systems
Data Link Control on TDM
Framing
 No flag or SYNC characters bracketing TDM frames
 Must provide synchronizing mechanism
 Added digit framing
◦ One control bit added to each TDM frame
 Looks like another channel - “control channel”

◦ Identifiable bit pattern used on control channel

◦ e.g. alternating 01010101…unlikely on a data channel
◦ Can compare incoming bit patterns on each channel with sync
pattern
Pulse Stuffing
 Problem - Synchronizing data sources
 Clocks in different sources drifting
 Data rates from different sources not related by simple rational number
 Solution - Pulse Stuffing
◦ Outgoing data rate (excluding framing bits) higher than sum of
incoming rates
◦ Stuff extra dummy bits or pulses into each incoming signal until it
matches local clock
◦ Stuffed pulses inserted at fixed locations in frame and removed at
demultiplexer
TDM of Analog and Digital Sources
Size Of Time Slots-
 The size of each time slot is kept such that each station gets sufficient time

for the following tasks-

 To put its data packet on to the transmission link
 Last bit of the packet is able to get out of the transmission link

 Size of each time slot = Tt + Tp

 where-
 Tt = Transmission delay
 Tp = Propagation delay
 Efficiency (η) = Useful Time / Total Time

 Useful time = Transmission delay of data packet = Tt

 Useless time = Propagation delay of data packet = Tp

Digital Carrier Systems
 Hierarchy of TDM
 USA/Canada/Japan use one system
 ITU-T use a similar (but different) system
 US system based on DS-1 format
 Multiplexes 24 channels
 Each frame has 8 bits per channel plus one framing bit
 193 bits per frame
DS 1 carrier
 For voice each channel contains one word of digitized data (PCM, 8000
samples per sec)
◦ Data rate 8000x193 = 1.544Mbps
◦ Five out of six frames have 8 bit PCM samples
◦ Sixth frame is 7 bit PCM word plus signaling bit
◦ Signaling bits form stream for each channel containing control and routing
info
 Same format for digital data
◦ 23 channels of data
 7 bits per frame plus indicator bit for data or systems control

◦ 24th channel is sync

DS-1 Transmission Format
SONET/SDH
 Synchronous Optical Network (ANSI)
 Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (ITU-T)
 Compatible
 Signal Hierarchy
◦ Synchronous Transport Signal level 1 (STS-1) or Optical Carrier level 1
(OC-1)
◦ 51.84Mbps
◦ Carry DS-3 or group of lower rate signals (DS1 DS1C DS2) plus ITU-T
rates (e.g. 2.048Mbps)
◦ Multiple STS-1 combined into STS-N signal
◦ ITU-T lowest rate is 155.52Mbps (STM-1)
SONET Frame Format
SONET STS-1 Overhead Octets
Statistical TDM
 In Synchronous TDM many slots are wasted
 Statistical TDM allocates time slots dynamically based on
demand
 Multiplexer scans input lines and collects data until frame full
 Data rate on line lower than aggregate rates of input lines
Statistical TDM Frame Formats
Performance

 Output data rate less than aggregate input rates

 May cause problems during peak periods
◦ Buffer inputs
◦ Keep buffer size to minimum to reduce delay
Buffer Size
and Delay