.

• Chapter VI

Sample Design and Procedure

 Chapter content

1. Some Fundamental Definitions

2. Sampling Procedure
3. Sampling Techniques
4. Central limit Theorem and Sampling
Theory
 Sampling Fundamentals

• Sampling may be defined as the process of obtaining information

about an entire population by examining only a part of it.

• In most of the research work and surveys, the usual approach

happens to be to make generalisations or to draw inferences

based on samples about the parameters of population from which

the samples are taken.

• The items so selected constitute what is technically called a

sample,

• their selection process or technique is called sample design

and the survey conducted on the basis of sample is described as

sample survey.
 NEED FOR SAMPLING
• Sampling is used in practice for a variety of reasons such as:

• Sampling can save time and money. A sample study is usually less

expensive than a census study and produces results at a relatively faster

speed.

• Sampling may enable more accurate measurements for a sample study is

generally conducted by trained and experienced investigators.

• Sampling remains the only way when population contains infinitely many

members.

• Sampling remains the only choice when a test involves the destruction of

the item under study.

• Sampling usually enables to estimate the sampling errors and, thus,

assists in obtaining information concerning some characteristic of the

population
 SOME FUNDAMENTAL DEFINITIONS

we should be familiar with some fundamental definitions concerning sampling

concepts and principles.

1. Universe/Population:

From a statistical point of view, the term ‘Universe’ refers to the total of the items or

units in any field of inquiry, whereas the term ‘population’ refers to the total of items

about which information is desired.

 The attributes that are the object of study are referred to as characteristics and the

units possessing them are called as elementary units.

 The aggregate of such units is generally described as population.

Thus, all units in any field of inquiry constitute universe and all elementary units (on

the basis of one characteristic or more) constitute population.

 Quit often, we do not find any difference between population and universe, and as

such the two terms are taken as interchangeable.

However, a researcher must necessarily define these terms precisely

 .

• The population or universe can be finite or infinite.

• The population is said to be finite if it consists of a fixed number of elements so

that it is possible to enumerate it in its totality.

• For instance, the population of a city, the number of workers in a factory are

examples of finite populations.

• The symbol ‘ N’ is generally used to indicate how many elements (or items) are

there in case of a finite population.

• An infinite population is that population in which it is theoretically impossible to

observe all the elements.

• Thus, in an infinite population the number of items is infinite i.e., we cannot have

any idea about the total number of items.

• The number of stars in a sky, possible rolls of a pair of dice are examples of

infinite population.

• From a practical consideration, we then use the term infinite population for a

population that cannot be enumerated in a reasonable period of time.

 2. Sampling frame:

• The elementary units or the group or cluster of such units may form the

basis of sampling process in which case they are called as sampling units.

• A list containing all such sampling units is known as sampling frame.

• Thus sampling frame consists of a list of items from which the sample is to

be drawn.

• In most cases they are not identical because it is often impossible to draw a

sample directly from population.

• As such this frame is either constructed by a researcher for the purpose of

his study or may consist of some existing list of the population.

• For instance, one can use telephone directory as a frame for conducting

opinion survey in a city. Whatever the frame may be, it should be a good

representative of the population

 :
3. Sampling design

• A sample design is a definite plan for obtaining a

sample from the sampling frame.

• It refers to the technique or the procedure the

researcher would adopt in selecting some sampling
units from which inferences about the population is
drawn.

• Sampling design is determined before any data are

collected.
 4. Statisitc(s) and parameter(s):

• A statistic is a characteristic of a sample, whereas

a parameter is a characteristic of a population.

• Parameter: A summary description of a variable in the

population (e.g., the mean and standard deviation are

parameters).

• Statistic: A summary description of a variable in the sample.

• Confidence Level: The amount of error the researcher is

willing to tolerate (e.g., 5%)

 .

Confidence Interval: An interval of values

computed from the sample, that is almost sure
to cover the true population value.
We make confidence intervals using values computed from the
sample, not the known values from the population

Interpretation: In 95% of the samples we take,

the true population proportion (or mean) will be
in the interval.
This is also the same as saying we are 95% confident that the true
population proportion (or mean) will be in the interval
 5. Sampling error:
• In general, there are two types of errors:

a. non-sampling errors and

b. sampling errors.
• Sampling Error
• “Sampling error is the error that arises in a data collection
process as a result of taking a sample from a population
rather than using the whole population.
• Non-sampling errors

These are errors that arise during the course of all data
collection activities.
 Non-sampling errors arise from:
• defects in the sampling frame.

• failure to identify the target population.

• non response, responses given by respondents.

• data processing and reporting, among others.

Defects in the sampling frame

• This result in coverage errors.

• These occur when there is an omission, duplication or wrongful inclusion

of units in the sampling frame.

• Omissions are referred to as ‘under coverage’ while duplications and

wrongful inclusions are called ‘over coverage’.

• These errors are caused by defects such as inaccuracy, incompleteness,

duplication, inadequacy and out of date sampling frames

 Response

• They result from the data that have been requested, provided,

received or recorded incorrectly.

• They may occur as a result of inefficiencies with the questionnaire,

the interviewer, the respondent or the survey process.

Poor questionnaire design

• The content and wording of the questionnaire may be misleading

and the layout of the questionnaire may make it difficult to

accurately record responses.

• It is essential to pilot test questionnaires to identify questionnaire

flow and question wording problems, and allow sufficient time for

improvements to be made to the questionnaire

 Interviewer bias
• An interviewer may influence the way a respondent answers survey

questions.

• To prevent this, interviewers must be trained to remain neutral

throughout the interviewing process and must pay close attention to the

way they ask each question

Respondent errors

• These arise through the respondent providing inaccurate or wrong

information.

• They can also arise from the way the respondent interprets the

questionnaire and the wording of the answer that the respondent gives.

• Careful questionnaire design and effective questionnaire testing can

overcome these problems to some extent.

 Non-Response

• Non-response results when data is not collected from respondents

• Non-response can arise if a respondent cannot be contacted (because the

sampling frame is incomplete or out-of-dated) or the respondent is not at home or

is unable to respond because of language difficulties or illness or out rightly

refuses to answer any questions or the dwelling unit is vacant.

• Other respondents may indicate that they simply don't have the time to complete

the interview or survey form.

To reduce non-response, the following approaches can be used:

 care should be taken in questionnaire design through the use of simple

questions. pilot testing of the questionnaire.

 explaining survey purposes and uses

 public awareness activities including discussions with key organisations

and interest groups, news releases, media interview and articles

 Reducing non-sampling errors

 Can be minimised by adopting any of the following approaches:

 using an up-to-date and accurate sampling frame.

 careful selection of the time the survey is conducted.

 planning for follow up of non-respondents.

 careful questionnaire design.

 providing thorough training and periodic retraining of

interviewers and processing staff.

 designing good systems to capture errors that occur

during the process of collecting data, sometimes
called Data Quality Assurance Systems.
 Factors Affecting Sampling Error

It is affected by a number of factors including:

sample size.
In general, larger sample sizes decrease the sampling
error, however this decrease is not directly proportional.
As a rough rule of the thumb, you need to increase the
sample size fourfold to halve the sampling error but
bear in mind that non sampling errors are likely to
increase with large samples.
 Precision:

• Precision is the range within which the population average (or

other parameter) will lie in accordance with the reliability specified

in the confidence level as a percentage of the estimate

or as a numerical quantity.

For instance, if the estimate is Br. 4,000 and the precision desired

is 4%, then the true value will be no less than Br. 3,840 and no

more than Br. 4160.

This is the range (Br. 3,840 to Br. 4160) within which the true

answer should lie. But if we desire that the estimate should not

deviate from the actual value by more than Br. 200 in either

direction, in that case the range would be Br. 3,800 to Br. 4200.
6. Confidence level and significance level:

• The confidence level or reliability is the expected

percentage of times that the actual value will fall

within the stated precision limits.

• Thus, if we take a confidence level of 95%, then we

mean that there are 95 chances in 100 (or .95 in 1)

that the sample results represent the true condition

of the population within a specified precision range

against chances in 100 (or .05 in 1) that it does not.

 .

• Precision is the range within which the answer may vary and still

be acceptable; confidence level indicates the likelihood that the

answer will fall within that range, and the significance level

indicates the likelihood that the answer will fall outside that range.

• We can always remember that if the confidence level is 95%,

then the significance level will be (100 – 95) i.e., 5%; if the

confidence level is 99%, the significance level is (100 – 99) i.e.,

1%, and so on.

• We should also remember that the area of normal curve within

precision limits for the specified confidence level constitute the

acceptance region and the area of the curve outside these limits in

either direction constitutes the rejection regions

 Sampling:
Design and Procedures
 All items in any field of inquiry constitute a ‘Universe’ or
‘Population.’

 A complete enumeration of all items in the ‘population’ is

known as a census inquiry.

 Further, many a time it is not possible to examine every

item in the population, and sometimes it is possible to obtain
sufficiently accurate results by studying only a part of total
population.

 However, it needs to be emphasized that when the universe

is a small one, it is no use resorting to a sample survey
 .

• The respondents selected should be as representative

of the total population as possible in order to produce
a miniature cross-section.
• The selected respondents constitute what is
technically called a ‘sample’ and the selection process
is called ‘sampling technique.’
• Researcher must prepare a sample design for his
study i.e., he must plan how a sample should be
selected and of what size such a sample would be
 Sample vs. Census
Conditions Favoring the Use of
Type of Study Sample Census

1. Budget Small Large

2. Time available Short Long

3. Population size Large Small

4. Variance in the characteristic Small Large

5. Cost of sampling errors Low High

6. Cost of nonsampling errors High Low

7. Nature of measurement Destructive Nondestructive

8. Attention to individual cases Yes No

 SAMPLE DESIGN

• A sample design is a definite plan for obtaining a sample from a given

population.

• It refers to the technique or the procedure the researcher would adopt in

selecting items for the sample.

• Sample design may as well lay down the number of items to be included

in the sample i.e., the size of the sample.

• Sample design is determined before data are collected.

• There are many sample designs from which a researcher can choose.

• Some designs are relatively more precise and easier to apply than

others.

• Researcher must select/prepare a sample design which should be

reliable and appropriate for his research study

 Population Vs. Sample

• Population of Interest

Population Sample

Parameter Statistic
Sample

We measure the sample using statistics in order to draw

inferences about the population and its parameters.
 Characteristics of Good Samples

• Representative

• Accessible

• Low cost
 The Sampling Design Process
Define the population

• .
Determine Sampling Frame

Determine sample procedure

Probability Sampling Non-Probability Sampling

Simple Random Sampling Convenience
Stratified Sampling Judgmental
Cluster Sampling Quota

Determine Appropriate
Sample Size

Conduct fieldwork
 1. Define the Target Population

 The target population is the collection of elements or objects that

possess the information sought by the researcher and about which
inferences are to be made.
 The population should be defined in connection with the objectives of
the study
 The target population should be defined in terms of elements,
sampling units, extent, and time.
 An element is the object about which or from which the information
is desired, e.g., the respondent.
 A sampling unit is an element, or a unit containing the element, that
is available for selection at some stage of the sampling process.
 Extent refers to the geographical boundaries.
 Time is the time period under consideration
 2. Determine the Sampling unit

• A decision has to be taken concerning a sampling unit

before selecting sample.
• Sampling unit may be a geographical one such as state,
district, village, etc., or a construction unit such as house,
flat, etc., or it may be a social unit such as family, club,
school, etc., or it may be an individual.
 The researcher will have to decide one or more of such
units that he has to select for his study.
 Individuals
 Household
 Streets
 Telephone numbers
Companies
 Sampling frame

• It is also known as ‘sampling frame’ from which

sample is to be drawn.
• It contains the names of all items of a universe (in
case of finite universe only).
• If source list is not available, researcher has to prepare
it. Such a list should be comprehensive, correct,
reliable and appropriate.
• It is extremely important for the source list to be as
representative of the population as possible.
•
 3. Selecting a Sampling Design

 Probability sampling - equal chance of being included in

the sample (random)

 A probability sample is a sample selected such that each item or person in

the population being studied has a known likelihood of being included in the
sample

 Four Most Commonly Used Probability Sampling Methods

1. simple random sampling , 2. systematic sampling

3. stratified sampling 4. cluster sampling

 Non-probability sampling

- unequal chance of being included in the sample (non-random)

1. convenience sampling 2. judgment sampling

3. snowball sampling 4. quota sampling

 Classification of Sampling Techniques

• .

Sampling Techniques

Nonprobability Probability
Sampling Techniques Sampling Techniques

Convenience Judgmental Quota Snowball

Sampling Sampling Sampling Sampling

Simple Random Systematic Stratified Cluster Other Sampling

Sampling Sampling Sampling Sampling Techniques
 Probability Sampling

 An objective procedure in which the

probability of selection is nonzero and is
known in advance for each population unit.
 It is also called random sampling.
 1. Simple Random Sampling (SRS)
• Population members are selected directly from the sampling frame
• Equal probability of selection for every member (sample
size/population size)

• Use random number table or random number generator

• EXAMPLE:

• A population consists of 845 employees of an Industry

• A sample of 52 employees is to be selected from that population.

The name of each employee is written on a small slip of paper and
deposited all of the slips in a box.

• After they have been thoroughly mixed, the first selection is made
by drawing a slip out of the box without looking at it.

• This process is repeated until the sample of 52 employees is chosen.

 2.Systematic Sampling
• Order all units in the sampling frame based on
some variable and number them from 1 to N
• Choose a random starting place from 1 to N and
then sample every k units after that
 systematic random sample

number the units in the population from 1 to N

decide on the n (sample size) that you want or
need
k = N/n = the interval size
randomly select an integer between
1 to k
then take every kth unit
 Example

• Select a random number

between 1 to 5, say 2.
• The resulting sample consists of
population 2,
• (2+5=) 7, (2+5x2=) 12, (2+5x3=)17,
and (2+5x4=) 22.
 3. Stratified Sampling
• The chosen sample is forced to contain units from
each of the segments, or strata, of the population
– equalizing "important" variables
• year in school, geographic area, product use, etc.

• Steps:
 Population is divided into mutually exclusive and
exhaustive strata based on an appropriate population
characteristic. (e.g. race, age, gender etc.)
 Simple random samples are then drawn from each stratum.
 Stratified Random Sampling
 Population is divided on the basis of characteristic

of interest in the population e.g. male and female

may have different consumption patterns

 Has a smaller sampling error than simple random

sample since a source of variation is eliminated

 Ensures representativeness when proportional

sampling used
 Stratified Sampling (II)
• Direct Proportional Stratified Sampling
– The sample size in each stratum is proportional to the
stratum size in the population

• Disproportional Stratified Sampling

– The sample size in each stratum is NOT proportional to
the stratum size in the population

– Used if

1) some strata are too small

2) some strata are more important than others

3) some strata are more diversified than others

 4. Cluster Sampling
 Clusters of population units are selected at random and then all
or some randomly chosen units in the selected clusters are
studied.

Steps:

 Population is divided into mutually exclusive and

exhaustive subgroups, or clusters. Ideally, each
cluster adequately represents the population.

 A simple random sample of a few clusters is selected.

 All or some randomly chosen units in the selected

clusters are studied.
 cluster or area random sampling

4.divide population into clusters (usually along geographic

boundaries) randomly sample clusters measure units within
sampled clusters

Multistage Cluster Sampling: Example

• The city has 10,000 households.

• The city has 1,000 blocks of 10 hh each.

• We want an initial sample of 500.

• We want to select 1/20 households.

• In Stage 1, we select 100 blocks.

• In Stage 2, we select 5 hh per block.

• Probability of selection for each hh:

• 1/10 (block) x ½ (hh in block) = 1/20.

 When to use stratified sampling

• If primary research objective is to compare groups

• Using stratified sampling may reduce sampling

errors

When to use cluster sampling

• If there are substantial fixed costs associated with

each data collection location

• When there is a list of clusters but not of individual

population members
 Non-Probability Sampling

 Subjective procedure in which the probability of

selection for some population units are zero or
unknown before drawing the sample.
 information is obtained from a non-representative
sample of the population
 Sampling error can not be computed

 Survey results cannot be projected to the population

 Non-Probability Sampling

• Advantages

 Cheaper and faster than probability

 Reasonably representative if collected in a
thorough manner
 Types of Non-Probability

• Convenience Sampling
– A researcher's convenience forms the basis for
selecting a sample.
Selecting easily accessible participants with no
randomization.
For example, asking people who live in your dorm to take a
survey for your project.
Judgment Sampling
– A researcher exerts some effort in selecting a
sample that seems to be most appropriate for the
 Snowball Sampling

 Selecting participants by finding one or two

participants and then asking them to refer you to

others.
For example, meeting a homeless person, interviewing that person,

and then asking him/her to introduce you to other homeless people

you might interview.

• Quota Sampling
– The population is divided into cells on the basis of relevant control
characteristics.

– A quota of sample units is established for each cell.

• 50 women, 50 men

– A convenience sample is drawn for each cell until the quota is met.
 Quota Sampling
• Quota sampling is the non probability equivalent of stratified
sampling.

 First identify the stratums and their proportions as

they are represented in the population

Then convenience or judgment sampling is used to select

the required number of subjects from each stratum
Quota sampling may be viewed as two-stage restricted judgmental
sampling.
– The first stage consists of developing control categories, or
quotas, of population elements.
– In the second stage, sample elements are selected based on
convenience or judgment.
 Probability Vs. Non-Probability Sampling

• Non-probability sampling is less time consuming and

less expensive.

• The probability of selecting one element over another is

not known and therefore the estimates cannot be
projected to the population with any specified level of
confidence. Quantitative generalizations about
population can only be done under probability sampling.

• However, in practice, marketing researchers also apply

statistics to study non-probability samples
Choosing Nonprobability vs. Probability Sampling

Conditions Favoring the Use of

Factors Nonprobability Probability
sampling sampling

Nature of research Exploratory Conclusive

Relative magnitude of sampling Nonsampling Sampling

and nonsampling errors errors are errors are
larger larger

Variability in the population Homogeneous Heterogeneous

(low) (high)

Statistical considerations Unfavorable Favorable

Operational considerations Favorable Unfavorable

Determine Appropriate Sample Size

• This refers to the number of items to be selected from the universe to constitute a

sample.

• The size of sample should neither be excessively large, nor too small. It should be

optimum.

• An optimum sample is one which fulfills the requirements of efficiency,

representativeness, reliability and flexibility.

• While deciding the size of sample, researcher must determine the desired precision as

also an acceptable confidence level for the estimate.

• The size of population variance needs to be considered as in case of larger variance

usually a bigger sample is needed.

• The size of population must be kept in view for this also limits the sample size.

• The parameters of interest in a research study must be kept in view, while deciding the

size of the sample.

• Costs too dictate the size of sample that we can draw. As such, budgetary constraint

must invariably be taken into consideration when we decide the sample size.
Sample Sizes Used in Marketing
Research Studies
Type of Study Minimum Size Typical Range

Problem identification research 500 1,000-2,500

(e.g. market potential)
Problem-solving research (e.g. 200 300-500
pricing)

Product tests 200 300-500

Test marketing studies 200 300-500

TV, radio, or print advertising (per 150 200-300

commercial or ad tested)
Test-market audits 10 stores 10-20 stores

Focus groups 2 groups 4-12 groups

 Sampling & Central limit Theorem

• A key distinction

• Population Distribution – distribution of all

individual scores in the population

• Sample Distribution – distribution of all the scores

in your sample

• Sampling Distribution – distribution of all the

possible sample means when taking samples of size
n from the population. Also called “the distribution
 .

• The normal distribution is very useful because it

defines boundaries by which to judge the
representativeness of a sample.
• The key boundary of interest is the standard
deviation, which is a range of values from the
mean that includes a certain percentage of area
beneath the bell-shaped curve.
• For example, one standard deviation accounts for
all values from the mean included within ≈34.1%
of the bell-shaped curve
 Notation

• the mean of the sampling distribution

X  
• the standard deviation of sampling distribution
(“standard error of the mean”)


• 
 X

n

Mean Standard deviation

Population distribution  
Sample distribution s
X
Sampling distribution X  X
 .

 The “standard error” of the mean is:

• The standard deviation of the sampling
distribution of the mean.
• It describes how much dispersion there is in the
sampling distribution of the mean.
 The standard error measures the standard
amount of difference between x-bar and  that is
reasonable to expect simply by chance.

 SE =

n
• Sampling distribution

 We are moving from descriptive statistics to

inferential statistics.

 Inferential statistics allow the researcher to

come to conclusions about a population on the
basis of descriptive statistics about a sample

• To make inferences about a population, we

need to understand sampling
 .

• Sampling distribution – A theoretical distribution

of all possible sample values for the statistic in which
we are interested
• A sampling distribution is a distribution of all of the
possible values of a statistic (say sample mean) for a
given size sample selected from a population.
• If all possible samples of a certain size, n, are
selected from a population, the mean of these
sample means (the grand mean) would be equal to
the population mean.
 .
• The distribution of values for a sample statistic
obtained from repeated samples, all of the same
size and all drawn from the same population

Example: Consider the set {1, 2, 3, 4}:

1) Make a list of all samples of size 2 that can be

drawn from this set (Sample with replacement)

2) Construct the sampling distribution for the sample

mean for samples of size 2

3) Construct the sampling distribution for the

minimum for samples of size 2
 Table of All Possible Samples

• . Sample x Minimum Probability

This table lists all
possible samples of size {1, 1} 1.0 1 1/16
{1, 2} 1.5 1 1/16
2, the mean for each {1, 3} 2.0 1 1/16
sample, the minimum for {1, 4} 2.5 1 1/16
each sample, and the {2, 1} 1.5 1 1/16
probability of each {2, 2} 2.0 2 1/16
{2, 3} 2.5 2 1/16
sample occurring (all
{2, 4} 3.0 2 1/16
equally likely) {3, 1} 2.0 1 1/16
{3, 2} 2.5 2 1/16
{3, 3} 3.0 3 1/16
{3, 4} 3.5 3 1/16
{4, 1} 2.5 1 1/16
{4, 2} 3.0 2 1/16
{4, 3} 3.5 3 1/16
{4, 4} 4.0 4 1/16
 Sampling Distribution
• Summarize the information in the previous table to obtain the
sampling distribution of the sample mean and the sample
minimum:

Sampling Distribution Histogram: Sampling Distribution

of the Sample Mean of the Sample Mean

x P( x ) P( x )
1.0 1/16 0.25

1.5 2/16 0.20

2.0 3/16 0.15

2.5 4/16
3.0 3/16 0.10

3.5 2/16 0.05

4.0 1/16 0.00

1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 x
 The Central Limit Theorem
The sampling distribution of the mean of a random
sample drawn from any population is
approximately normal for a sufficiently large
sample size.

The larger the sample size, the more closely the

sampling distribution of X will resemble a normal
distribution
 Central Limit Theorem…[Most important
theorem in statistics]
The sampling distribution of the sample mean will be
approximately normal as the sample size increases.

In many practical situations, a sample size of 30 [population

needs to be what I call well behaved – sort of mounded but
may be shewed] may be sufficiently large to allow us to use
the normal distribution as an approximation for the
sampling distribution of X.
Note: If X is normal, X is normal. Don’t need Central Limit
Theorem in this case.
• The mean of the sampling distribution of is
equal to the mean of the original population:
μ  μ
• X

• The standard deviation of the sampling distribution of (also called

the standarderror of the mean) is equal to the
standard deviation of the original population
divided by the square root of the sample size:
–Notes:
The distribution of becomes more compact as n increases.
(Why?) The CLT says: the distribution of is
approximately normal regardless of the shape of the original
distribution, when the sample size is large enough!
 Graphical Illustration of the Central Limit
Theorem
Original Population Distribution of x:
n=2

• .

10 20 30 x 10 20 30 x

Distribution of x: Distribution of x:
n = 10 n = 30

10 x 10 20 x
 Assignment ,
Mandatory

1. What do you mean by ‘Sample Design’? What points should be taken into consideration by a

researcher in developing a sample design for this research project.

2. Why probability sampling is generally preferred in comparison to non-probability sampling?

Explain the procedure of selecting a simple random sample.

3. Under what circumstances stratified random sampling design is considered appropriate? How

would you select such sample? Explain by means of an example.

4. Distinguish between:
– Convenience and purposive sampling;

– Systematic and stratified sampling;

- Cluster and area sampling.

5. Under what circumstances would you recommend:

– A probability sample?

-- A non-probability sample?
– A stratified sample?

-- A cluster sample?
 .

6. Explain and illustrate the procedure of selecting a random sample.

7. The following are the number of departmental stores in 10 cities: 35, 27, 24, 32, 42, 30, 34, 40, 29 and 38. If
we want to select a sample of 15 stores using cities as clusters and selecting within clusters proportional to
size, how many stores from each city should be chosen? (Use a starting point of 4).
8. What sampling design might be used to estimate the weight of a group of men and women?

9. . Explain the meaning and significance of the concept of “Standard Error’ in sampling analysis.

10 Describe briefly the commonly used sampling distributions.

11. State the reasons why sampling is used in the context of research studies.

12. Explain the meaning of the following sampling fundamentals:

• Sampling frame;

• Sampling error;

• Central limit theorem;

13. . Distinguish between the following:

• Statistic and parameter;

• Confidence level and significance level;

• Random sampling and non-random sampling;

•
• Sampling of attributes and sampling of variables;