Effects of different egg turning

frequencies on incubation
efficiency parameters

Prepared by: LADY MAE R. SALIBONGCOGON

1-MSAS
 INTRODUCTION
The profitability of incubators is determined by monitoring their physical
environment. Thus, providing the ideal conditions for embryonic
development, during artificial incubation, is crucial to improve the
productivity and economic index (Decuypere et al., 2001; Bergoug et al., 2013
). Turning eggs, for example, is a physical parameter that can affect the
success of incubation and the quality of chicks (Moraes et al., 2008). This
parameter plays a key role in embryonic growth (Yoshizaki and Saito, 2002)
because it supports the absorption and metabolization of the albumen and
yolk nutrients in the embryo (Eycleshymer, 1906) and prevents embryo
adherence to the inner shell membrane (Romanoff, 1960). In addition,
understanding the effects of egg turning on embryo physiology, such as
accumulation of proteins in the amniotic fluid, increased vascularized area,
and gas exchange (Wilson, 1991; Pearson et al., 1996), is important for
artificial incubation.
Egg turning involves several aspects such as turning frequency (
Wilson, 1991). Commercial setters usually operate with a turning
frequency of 24 times per day until the 18th D of incubation (
Freeman and Vince, 1974). However, in some studies, the setters
were programmed to turn the eggs at a frequency of 12 times per
day during the incubation process (Almeida et al., 2015;
Morita et al., 2016; Zhong et al., 2018). For example, in a study by
Leandro et al. (2000), 3 commercial incubators equipped with an
automatic egg turning system were used to turn eggs every 2 h. In
this sense, there is still no standardization by the manufacturers of
incubators and research centers with regard to the turning
frequency.
Few studies have evaluated the effects of a turning frequency of 12
times per day on the incubation yield. For example, in a study by
Robertson (1961a), no significant difference was shown between the
hatchability of eggs turned 12 and 24 times, although a mean
difference of 3.25% was obtained to the detriment of 12 times.
According to the author, although no statistical support was
available, it probably constitutes a real difference, and from a
practical point of view, it would be advantageous to turn eggs 24
instead of 12 times. Other studies have evaluated the use of fewer
turning frequencies (8, 6, 4, 3, 2, and 1 time per day) during
incubation (Insko and Martin, 1933; Kaltofen and Ubbels, 1954;
Robertson, 1961b; Abiola et al., 2008). The researchers noted that
the highest turning frequency used resulted in better incubation
results. Optimum turning frequency has been demonstrated to be 96
times daily (Wilson, 1991; Elibol and Brake, 2003), although 24 times
daily has been accepted as the most practical under commercial
circumstances, owing to the relatively small differences between 24
and 96 times (Freeman and Vince, 1974).
Significance of the Study

Considering the lack of research related to the turning frequency

and the absence of standardization by the manufacturers of
incubators and research centers, I hypothesize that better
knowledge about the effects of turning frequency, during incubation,
will lead to adequate and efficient physical environment control,
thus allowing improvements in the production index for both industry
and poultry producers. Therefore, the objective of this study was to
evaluate the effects of different egg turning frequencies (24, 12, 6,
and 3 times per day) on incubation efficiency parameters.
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
Hatchability
Since Olsen (thesis cited by Landauer, 1967) first observed that

hens moved their eggs about 96 times per day during natural
incubation, there has been interest in determining the optimum
turning frequency for artificial incubation. Turning has been
reported to be essential for optimum development of the
embryonic membranes (New, 1957; Robertson, 1961a;

Deeming, 1989) and correct orientation of the embryo within the

egg before hatching (Robertson, 1961b; Lundy, 1969).

Several authors (Kuiper and Ubbels, 1951; Kaltofen and
Ubbels, 1954; Kaltofen, 1955) have reported that turning
eggs 24 times daily resulted in better hatchability than
less frequent turning. Elibol and Brake (2003) reported
that a turning frequency for broiler hatching eggs from 3
to 11 d of incubation of 96 times per day produced
better results than turning frequencies of 24 and 48
times per day. However, turning eggs at higher
frequencies (e.g., 480 times per day) decreased
hatchability (Robertson, 1961a).
Wilson (1991), in his review, concluded that
maximum hatchability was achieved with a turning
frequency of 96 times per day but that 24 times per
day was a practical frequency. Because it had
become generally accepted that turning eggs more
than 24 times per day produced only minimal
improvements in hatchability under practical
conditions, commercial incubator manufacturers
have adopted the practice of turning eggs hourly (
Freeman and Vince, 1974).
The growth and metabolism of a 1-day-old chick are
mostly determined by processes that occur during
embryonic development. The major goal of farmers is
to develop a chick with good hatchability, viability,
and post-hatch performance. To reach this goal, it is
vital to determine the sources of variable factors as
well as the repercussions of these factors for optimal
embryonic development and hatching outcomes.
Physiological changes occur during embryonic
development and the hatched day-old chick results in
21 days of development (Decuypere
and Bruggeman, 2007). As a result, the endocrine
system is absolutely necessary for appropriate
embryonic development and hatching success.
The relationship between several physiological parameters such as corticosterone
and thyroid hormones balances, heat production and metabolism, and gas exchange
(O2, CO2) is crucial for the development of embryos and their survival under the
incubation process (Decuypere et al., 1990; Tona et al., 2004).
Furthermore, incubation conditions such as temperature, hypoxia
(low oxygen), hyperoxia (high oxygen), and hypercapnia (high CO2)
can alter these physiological parameters and influence embryonic
development in various ways. This could have an impact on embryo
general growth trajectory and, as a result, flock uniformity. In
literature, the relationships between physiological parameters and
incubation conditions with embryonic development in time are
scarce, and a better understanding of these parameters that affect
chick quality and post-hatch growth is highly desired. The link
between the initial feeding and post-hatch chick performance is
crucial. It is well known that denying 1-day-old chicks access to
nutrition decreases post-hatch growth. It is widely known that the
first feeding stimulates a variety of molecular and cellular targets,
including enzymes and hormones, which affect general growth and
a variety of physiological processes, including the yolk utilization,
metabolic level, and gastrointestinal development (Decuypere
and Bruggeman, 2007).
As a result, the relationship between the initial feeding
and post-hatch chick performance is particularly
intriguing. In-ovo feeding was examined in-depth to
understand how exogenous nutrients could affect
embryonic growth and hatching. Additionally, photo-
incubation, a process of stimulating developing embryos
with light is also reviewed. During sembryogenesis, the
growth-promoting effect of photo-incubation has been
reported and there are shreds of evidence that photo-
incubation influences hatch events (Tong et al., 2018),
post-hatch growth performance parameters (
Zhang et al., 2016), fear responses (Archer et al., 2009),
stress level and adaptability to novel post-hatch
environment (Ozkan et al., 2012).
The role of light in the physiological
process of poultry ontogenesis is
essential to synchronize knowledge and
scientific findings. This review focuses
on the effects of incubation conditions
such as ventilation, light, temperature,
relative humidity and in ovo feeding on
embryo and post-hatch parameters.
Studies on the effect of these different factors on egg turning on post-
hatch growth are not well documented. However, many hypotheses can
be made based on the results of turning on incubation parameters.
Then, Takeshita and McDaniel (1982) observed that although chicks
from eggs in horizontal or vertical with small end up required less time
to exhibit initial pips, they required longer to emerge from the shell
than those in vertical with the small end down. Usually, the spread of
hatching can affect the time of first feeding. Shortness of hatching
windows when eggs were set with the small end down would lead to
improved growth performances through early access to feed, which is
crucial for post-hatch performances (Gaglo-Disse et al., 2010;
Wang et al., 2014). In addition to short hatching windows,
Guo et al. (2021) recorded an increase of goslings of high quality with a
proper turning angle. According to Tona et al. (2003a), day-old chick
quality and relative growth up to 7 days as well as slaughter
performance are positively correlated (Figure 4). The authors
concluded that the quality of chicks was better with an adequate
turning angle (45°) because these chicks were able to use more
nutrients to produce body mass tissue. An adequate turning angle
could improve the feed efficiency of birds during the growth period.
Turning frequency
Turning eggs has long been known to be necessary in artificial
incubation to secure satisfactory hatches. Until the development of
Mammoth incubators, however, little attention was given to the manner
of turnings eggs or to the number of times they were turned a day.
Eycleshymer (1907) appears to be one of the first to report the effect of
not turning eggs. He found that he obtained only a 15 percent hatch
when the eggs were not turned as compared to 45 and 58 percent
hatches when the eggs were turned two and five times per day,
respectively. He further states "that position of egg is a factor of little
importance."
Jackson (1912) found that eggs turned twice daily
hatched slightly better than those moved only once a day
and also that "eggs laid flat and turned twice daily gave
better results than those kept in any other position."
Comparisons between frequencies of turning have been
reported also by Lewis (1920), Kaupp (1921), Payne
(1921), Card (1925), Chattock (1925), Kaupp and
Dearstyne (1926), and Insko and Martin (1933). These
investigators reported increased percentage hatchability
with increased times turning up to 8 times.
Egg turning involves four major factors that
can be taken into account; the position of
eggs, angle of turning, frequency (times/day)
and stage of incubation in whom this turning
occurs. These different factors of turning
diversely influence the physiology of the
embryo, incubation parameters and post-
hatch performances.
The lack of turning during incubation has been reviewed (Lundy, 1969; Baggott et al., 2002). A complete absence of turning
during the first but not the second week of chicken eggs incubation leads to an increase in mal-positioned embryos and
mortality (Elibol and Brake, 2004). The results of New (1957) showed that days 3 to days 7 of incubation were critical and
failure to turn eggs during this critical period leads to a decrease in hatchability and rates of embryonic growth (
Deeming, 1989). Moreover, the lack of turning of chicken eggs between days 12 and days 19 of incubation (last stages of
embryonic development) leads to less embryonic growth as a result of impaired O 2 consumption through the chorioallantoic
gas exchanger (Pearson et al., 1996). Tona et al. (2003a) noted that turning of eggs until 12, 15, and 18 d of incubation did
not affect the levels of plasma corticosterone in the developing embryo or newly hatched chicks.
The author inferred that corticosterone might not be
involved in the mechanism by which turning affect
hatching and production parameters. However, they
observed that turning beyond 15 days increased pCO2 in
air cells (hypercapnia) and plasma levels of T3 and T4 at
the internal pipping. In contrast to Tona et al. (2003b) who
showed a correlation between this increase in
metabolism, hatching time and hatchability, these authors
observed that these parameters remain similar between
eggs turned until 12 days and 18 days, suggesting the
involvement of other intrinsic factors.
Egg turning at 90° and 45° on either side of the vertical using as a
standard practice in the industry was linked to considerable research
during the 1930s–1950s (Baggott et al., 2002). Lesser turning angles
increase mal-positioned and embryo mortality in domestic fowl (
Funk and Forward, 1953; Elibol and Brake, 2006; Cutchin et al., 2009
). Schalkwyk et al. (2000) noticed that hatchability amounted to
1·83% for an increase of 1° (R2 = 0·96) when ostrich eggs were
rotated hourly through angles ranging from 60° to 90°. In a recent
study, Guo et al. (2021) recorded a shortened incubation duration and
improvement in hatchability and goslings’ quality when eggs were
turned at a wider angle (60° compared with 50°). They also observed
an increase in late embryos and goslings’ weight correlate with a
significant upregulation of genes in the somatotropic axis (GHRH,
GH, and IGF-1 mRNA expression) and muscular development (pax7,
MyoD, MYF5, and MRF4 mRNA expression). The authors concluded
that wider angle turning made full use of the albumen content in
goose eggs and recommend adjusting the angle of turning to the ratio
of albumen in eggs according to avian species as previously stated
by other researchers (Baggott et al., 2002; Elibol and Brake, 2006;
Deeming, 2009).
Static incubation impairs the expansion of the area
vasculosa during the critical period of sub-embryonic fluid
production in the domestic fowl (Baggott et al., 2002). This
absence of egg turning delayed the formation of extra-
embryonic fluids and reduced rates of embryonic growth
later in embryonic development (Deeming, 1989). Turning
once an hour is commonly used in the industry concerning
fowl eggs. The increase of this frequency up to 96 times
daily does not significantly improve incubation results (
Freeman and Vince, 1974). By contrast, lower frequencies
decrease these results. Indeed, Oliveira et al. (2020) showed
a decrease in hatchability due to a gradual increase
percentage of early and late mortality with less turning
frequency
The profitability of incubators is determined by monitoring their physical
environment. Thus, providing the ideal conditions for embryonic development,
during artificial incubation, is crucial to improve the productivity and economic
index (Decuypere et al., 2001; Bergoug et al., 2013). Turning eggs, for example,

is a physical parameter that can affect the success of incubation and the quality
of chicks (Moraes et al., 2008). This parameter plays a key role in embryonic

growth (Yoshizaki and Saito, 2002) because it supports the absorption and

metabolization of the albumen and yolk nutrients in the embryo (Eycleshymer

, 1906) and prevents embryo adherence to the inner shell membrane (

Romanoff, 1960). In addition, understanding the effects of egg turning on embryo

physiology, such as accumulation of proteins in the amniotic fluid, increased

vascularized area, and gas exchange (Wilson, 1991; Pearson et al., 1996), is

important for artificial incubation.

Commercial setters usually operate with a turning
frequency of 24 times per day until the 18th D of incubation
(Freeman and Vince, 1974). However, in some studies, the
setters were programmed to turn the eggs at a frequency of
12 times per day during the incubation process (
Almeida et al., 2015; Morita et al., 2016; Zhong et al., 2018).
For example, in a study by Leandro et al. (2000), 3
commercial incubators equipped with an automatic egg
turning system were used to turn eggs every 2 h. In this
sense, there is still no standardization by the manufacturers
of incubators and research centers with regard to the
turning frequency.
Few studies have evaluated the effects of a
turning frequency of 12 times per day on the
incubation yield. For example, in a study by
Robertson (1961a), no significant difference
was shown between the hatchability of eggs
turned 12 and 24 times, although a mean
difference of 3.25% was obtained to the
detriment of 12 times. According to the
author, although no statistical support was
available, it probably constitutes a real
difference, and from a practical point of
view, it would be advantageous to turn eggs
24 instead of 12 times.
Other studies have evaluated the use of fewer turning frequencies
(8, 6, 4, 3, 2, and 1 time per day) during incubation (Insko
and Martin, 1933; Kaltofen and Ubbels, 1954; Robertson, 1961b;
Abiola et al., 2008). The researchers noted that the highest turning
frequency used resulted in better incubation results. Optimum
turning frequency has been demonstrated to be 96 times daily (
Wilson, 1991; Elibol and Brake, 2003), although 24 times daily has
been accepted as the most practical under commercial
circumstances, owing to the relatively small differences between
24 and 96 times (Freeman and Vince, 1974).
Considering the lack of research related to the turning
frequency and the absence of standardization by the
manufacturers of incubators and research centers, we
hypothesize that better knowledge about the effects of
turning frequency, during incubation, will lead to adequate
and efficient physical environment control, thus allowing
improvements in the production index for both industry and
poultry producers. Therefore, the objective of this study was
to evaluate the effects of different egg turning frequencies
(24, 12, 6, and 3 times per day) on incubation efficiency
parameters.
Embryo Mortality
Factors affecting hatchability may be divided into those which are
concerned with the breeding of the parent stock, the nutrition of
the parent stock, and the environmental and mechanical factors
which are involved in the care and the incubation of the eggs.
The earliest work on the distribution of embryo mortality was that
of Payne (1919) on the domestic fowl. He found that there are two
distinct periods of high mortality, the first on the fourth day and the
second on the nineteenth day of incubation. He noted that 65
percent of all embryo mortality was found on or near these peaks;
that is, on the 4th, 5th, 6th and 18th, 19th and 20th days.
 Data reported by Riddle (1930) give the distribution of
embryo mortality for three additional bird species, namely,
wild doves, ringdoves, and common pigeons. His data are
in close agreement with those of Payne and the two peaks
of embryo mortality fall at the same relative periods of
incubation. Riddle suggests that part of the abnormally
high mortality during the early period of the investigation
reported in this paper is in connection with a project of the
Kentucky Agricultural Experiment Station and is published
by permission of the Director. incubation (2nd to 4th day)
may be caused by failures in respiratory adjustment, while
the high mortality during the later period of incubation may
be ascribable to an inadequate water supply at this period.
Effect of Light Characteristics on Embryonic Development
and Physiology

Bulb type, which serves as a light source, is a crucial factor

that can potentially enhance or disrupt the process of
photo-incubation. For instance, the problem of secondary
heating associated with incandescent (ICD) due to its high
heat emitting capability could engage the mechanism of
thermal physiology in the process. The usage of ICD is
highly discouraged if the bulb is not intended to be used as
a primary source of heat in the incubator. Studies have
demonstrated that other bulb types such as fluorescent and
LED posed lower (Rozenboim et al., 2004) or no secondary
heating effect during incubation (Zhang et al., 2016).
A comparative study on light sources revealed that
fluorescent light enhances the embryonic weight of
broiler over ICD. Incandescent light decreased hatch
weight and hatchability but increased early and late
embryonic mortality in contrast to fluorescent (
Hanafy and Hegab, 2019). It was also reported that
small-sized eggs develop faster under ICD while the
rate of development under fluorescent was not
influenced by egg size (Hanafy and Hegab, 2019).
Duration of light exposure or photoperiod is an essential photo-
incubation parameter. Non-continuous or intermittent lighting (12 h
of light) seems beneficial over other photoperiods. Studies have
shown a reduction in embryonic mortality (Riaz et al., 2021) and an
increase in melatonin hormone under intermittent lighting on day 19
of incubation (Archer and Mench, 2014a) compared to continuous or
dark incubation. Continuous photo-regimen (23 or 24 of light) has
been reported to elevate eggshell temperature (Rozenboim
et al., 2004) and a destructive effect of the regimen has also been
reported on avian eyes (Archer et al., 2009). Interestingly,
Raiz et al. (2021) reported a shorter hatch window and improved
hatchability under both continuous and intermittent in contrast to
dark incubation. In contrast, Archer and Mench (2014b) reported no
impact of lighting duration on hatchability relative to dark
incubation. A factor confounding these studies might be the
differences in intensities used by the authors.
THANK YOU AND
GOD BLESS