Cell structure

Module 1.1: What distinguishes one cell from another?

Syllabus: Module 1.1
Inquiry question 1: What distinguishes one cell from another?
Students:
• Investigate a variety of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell structures, including but not
limited to:
 drawing scaled diagrams of a variety of cells
 comparing and contrasting different cell organelles and arrangements
 modelling the structure and function of the fluid mosaic model of the cell membrane

• Investigate different cellular structures, including but not limited to:

 examining a variety of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
 describe a range of technologies that are used to determine a cell’s structure and
function
What is a cell?
A cell is defined as the basic unit of all living things.
Some organisms are made of only one cell (unicellular) and
some are made from many cells working together
(multicellular).
The Cell Theory

Cell Theory was proposed in 1839 by two German biologists -

Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann. It stated:

1. Cells are the smallest units of life.

2. All living things are made up of cells.
3. All cells come from pre-existing cells (added by German Rudolf
Virchow in 1858).
What is a cell?
Although there are different types of cells (blood cell, skin cell, bacteria etc), the
cells of plants, animals and bacteria share a number of common structures.
These include:
• The cell membrane separate the interior of the cell from the outside
environment
• Cytoplasm consists of cytosol. Cytosol is a gel-like substance, made up of
more than 80% water, and contains ions, salts and organic molecules
• DNA carries hereditary information, directs the cell’s activities and is passed
from parents to offspring
• Genes: consists of DNA and contains the recipe/code for making proteins
• Ribosomes are organelles responsible for the synthesis of proteins.
• Protein: substance produced by ribosomes within cells, using the code
provided by genes
Prokaryotes vs eukaryotes
Cells can be classified into two groups: prokaryotes and
eukaryotes.
• Prokaryotes (pro = before; karyon = nucleus) are primitive
and have a very simple structure
• Examples include bacteria and archaea
• Eukaryotes (eu = true or proper; karyon = nucleus) are much
more complex cells and have membrane-bound internal
structures.
• Plants, animals, protist and fungi
Inside cells
All eukaryote cells have membrane-bound internal structures called
organelles and they all have specialised functions. It also contains the
nucleus, which is surrounded by a double membrane containing their
genetic material.
Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells differ in several ways:
• Prokaryotic cells do not have membrane-bound organelles, while
eukaryotic cells have many different membrane-bound organelles,
with specialised structures and functions.
• Prokaryotic cells do not have a nucleus, and their DNA is in the
form of a single, circular chromosome and small, circular
molecules called plasmids. The DNA of eukaryotic cells is in the
form of linear chromosomes and is contained in the nucleus.
• Eukaryotes reproduces using mitosis (asexual and sexual
reproduction) while Prokaryotic cells replicate via binary fission
(Asexual).
• Prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells also differ significantly in size. The
typical eukaryotic cell is around 10 times larger than most
prokaryotic cells.
 Types of Prokaryotes

Prokaryotes

Bacteria
Bacteria Archaea
Archaea
- Exist in most - Exist in extreme environments
environments (hot and salty)

They are differing in some other structural, biochemical

and physiological characteristics
Prokaryotes
• Prokaryotes are organisms that are made up of a single cell
(unicellular). Bacteria, cyanobacteria (photosynthetic
bacteria), and archaea, such as methanogens, are examples
of prokaryotes.
• Prokaryotic organisms can be found everywhere—even in
extreme environments such as volcanoes.
• Most prokaryotic cells are small and therefore have a large
surface area relative to their volume. This allows the cells to
take in and release materials efficiently and replicate quickly.
• As the size of a cell decreases, the surface-area-to-volume
ratio (SA:V) of the cell increases. A greater surface-area-to-
volume ratio increases the rate at which materials can
move across the surface. Being small allows cells to
efficiently exchange materials with their environment.
• Prokaryotic cells lack membrane-bound organelles, and their
cytoplasm contains scattered ribosomes that are involved in
the synthesis of proteins.
• Most of the genetic material forms a large loop known as
bacterial chromosome, with the rest in small circular rings
called plasmids
• Nucleoid: irregular shaped region that
carries genetic information of the
prokaryote (there is no membrane
around it- it is attached to the cell
membrane, and has immediate contact
with cytoplasm)
• Plasmids: small circular double
stranded DNA
Capsule: sticky layer that helps the cell
evade the hosts immune system or
adhere to other cells/surfaces
• Flagella: allow movement towards or
away from stimuli
• Pili: used to attach to other surfaces
Eukaryotic cells: Plants and animals
The eukaryotic domain: The 4 domains
The eukaryotic domain diversified into 4 main groups
1) Those that harboured chloroplast to become the first plants
2) Immobile fungus: cells that include a cell wall but no
chloroplast
3) Multicellular heterotrophic animals
4) Unicellular eukaryotic cells that fit in non of the above (i.e.
protists)
Nucleus
The nucleus is a large organelle surrounded by a
double-layered nuclear membrane.
• The nuclear membrane contains pores that link it
with the cytosol.
• The nucleus contains most of the genetic material,
which is formed as DNA and proteins. The
information for the synthesis of new proteins is
present in genes within the DNA.
• The nucleus is the control centre of the cell and
coordinates all of the cell’s activities.
Ribosome
• Ribosomes consist of two subunits joined together. Cells contain many
thousands of ribosomes.
• Ribosomes are composed of proteins and ribosomal RNA (rRNA), and are the
sites of protein synthesis. They translate the sequence of amino acids
specified by the mRNA into proteins.
• Ribosomes do not have a membrane
surrounding them; they are non-membrane-bound organelles .
 Golgi Apparatus
The Golgi apparatus is also called the Golgi body or
Golgi complex. It is a stack of flattened, smooth
membrane sacs called cisternae.
• Unlike the cisternae found in the rough endoplasmic
reticulum, the cisternae in the Golgi apparatus are
not connected.
• Golgi body processes, packages and sort cell
products:
1) Adding proteins and carbohydrates to cell products
2) Provide a membrane around the cell products to
package them i.e.“packaging label”. This
determines where the package will end up –i.e.
transported within the cell or wherever they are
required.
Endoplasmic reticulum
• The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a network of intracellular
membranous sacs (cisternae) and tubules. It links with the cell
membrane and other membranous organelles, including the
nucleus.
• The ER can be rough or smooth.
• Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) has ribosomes
attached. RER is abundant in cells that actively produce and
export proteins, such as pancreatic cells, which secrete
digestive enzymes.
• Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)
does not have ribosomes attached. It
contains the enzymes involved in the
synthesis of molecules other than
proteins, such as phospholipids and
steroids.
 Lysosome
• Lysosomes are the cell’s recycling units—
specialised vesicles that digest unwanted
matter.
• Lysosomes fuse with vesicles containing
unwanted matter, such as damaged
organelles or foreign matter.
The enzymes in the lysosome then digest the
unwanted matter. Small molecules that the cell
can reuse may diffuse back into the
cytoplasm. The rest are either retained
in the lysosome, or released from the
cell by the process of exocytosis.
 Vacuole
• A vacuole is a membrane-bound,
liquid-filled space that stores enzymes and other organic and
inorganic molecules.
• Animal cells contain many small, temporary vacuoles, but
most plant cells contain a single, large, permanent vacuole
surrounded by a membrane (tonoplast)
• Plant vacuoles provide structural support by helping to
maintain elasticity. They also function in a similar way to the
lysosomes found in animal cells.
 Mitochondria
• Mitochondria are organelles composed of two
membranes – the inner and outer
membranes.
• Mitochondria is where cellular respiration
occurs. The inner mitochondrial membranes
are the site of the chemical reactions of
cellular respiration.
• The highly folded structure of the inner
membranes increases the surface area over
which these chemical reactions can
take place.
Chloroplasts
Chloroplasts are organelles involved
in photosynthesis. They contain large
amounts of a green pigment called chlorophyll.
• Chloroplasts are composed of three membranes:
1) the outer membrane
2) the inner membrane
3) thylakoid system: Thylakoids are disc-shaped sacs that
form compartments within the chloroplast.
• Chloroplasts trap light energy, which is used to split water
molecules into hydrogen and oxygen in the process of
photosynthesis.
 Cell Wall
• The cell wall is a rigid structure
that surrounds the cell
membrane of plant cells, fungal
cells and some prokaryote cells.
• In plants, the cell wall is composed mainly of cellulose.
Fungal cell walls are made of chitin.
• The cell wall provides support, prevents expansion of the
cell, and allows water and dissolved substances to pass
freely through it. Lignin in the cell walls of woody plants,
especially in the xylem, gives them additional strength.
Revision: Drawing scaled diagrams
When drawing different types of cells, it is useful
to draw these cells to scale. This allows a more
accurate representation of the size of these
cells.
• Diagrams that are drawn to scale will always
contain a 'scale bar', which indicates the
scale to which the diagram is drawn.
• A scaled diagram is a scientific drawing of a
specimen (cell in this case) that has an
appropriate scale to indicate its actual size.
The scale bar represents a specific whole number of µm and is often 1-
5 cm in length. In order to draw the scale bar:
1. Determine the actual length of the object to be drawn.
2. When the actual length of the object determined above is divided by
the length of the proposed drawing, a whole number should be
obtained.
For example:
● length of cell = 8 µm
● length of drawing = 4 cm
Actual diameter of cell =60 µm
Diameter of cell to be drawn= 5 cm

A scale bar of 1 cm represents 12 µm

The nucleus is 6 µm, which would be equivalent to 0.5
cm

Remember:
● Scaled diagrams must always contain a scale bar.
● The scale to be used can be calculated by dividing
the actual size of the cell by the length of the
diagram to be drawn
Tips for Drawing Cells
● Make sharp, clear lines that are not broken
● Label any features, by drawing a line (with a ruler) from the feature to the
side, beyond the boundary of the drawing. Do not use arrows.
● Do not shade
● Include a scale
● You need not draw everything in the field of view. Just draw a section of
your view (perhaps 1 or 2 cells) that clearly demonstrate what you saw
Microscope: Terms and definition

• Magnification: Increase in the size of the image

• Resolution (resolving power): ability to distinguish between two

separate objects. It is the smallest distance between two
objects where each can be observed as separate.

• Field of view (FOV): the maximum area visible when looking

through the microscope eyepiece (eyepiece FOV)
Modern microscopes: Light microscope
Mechanism of light microscope
Light source passes through a
condenser lens and then through the
thin specimen.
This beam of light then passes
through the convex objective lens,
where the image is magnified and
viewed through the ocular lens.
Summary
Light microscope
Magnification Upto 1500x (depends on lens)

Resolution Maximum of 200nm (nanometers)- can only distinguish

two separate structures if the distance between them is
200nm or more. If the distance between the object is less
than 200nm, the two distinct objects will be seen as one
Type of material Living, moving, dead, abiotic
that can be
viewed
Modern microscope: fluorescence
microscopes
The fluorescence microscope is like the light microscope, however it
has extra features that enable scientists to produce images of
specific parts inside the cell.

1. The sample to be viewed is labelled with a fluorescent substance

that will attach to the structures the scientist wants to specifically
observe.
2. The sample is then illuminated with a high intensity source of
light that causes the fluorescence substance to emit light.
3. This fluorescent light is directed through filters that separate it
from surrounding light. The viewer can see only those areas of
the sample that are fluorescing.
Modern microscope: Electron microscope
Electron microscopes use an electron
beam (instead of light) which is
focussed using electromagnets
(instead of glass lenses).
The specimen must be specially
prepared and held inside a vacuum
chamber from which the air has been
pumped out (because electrons do
not travel very far in air).
Scanning electron microscope (SEM) Transmission electron microscope
(TEM)
- Bombards solid specimen with a - Electrons are transmitted (pass
beam of electrons, which causes through) the specimen
secondary electrons to be emitted - Produces 2D image
from the surface layers of the - Magnifies upto 1 500 000 x
specimen - Resolution of about 2nm
- Resolution of about 10nm
- 3D images
Electron microscope: SEM vs. TEM
Compare light vs. Electron microscope
Comparison of structures: light vs.
electron
Syllabus: Module 1.1
Inquiry question 1: What distinguishes one cell from another?
Students:
• Investigate a variety of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell structures, including but not
limited to:
 drawing scaled diagrams of a variety of cells
 comparing and contrasting different cell organelles and arrangements
 modelling the structure and function of the fluid mosaic model of the cell membrane

• Investigate different cellular structures, including but not limited to:

 examining a variety of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
 describe a range of technologies that are used to determine a cell’s structure and
function
Cell membrane
The cell membrane controls the exchange of material between
the internal and external environments of the cell.
It is selectively permeable meaning only certain molecules or ions
are allowed in or out.
We cannot see the cell membrane with any microscope available
today, however, we use the fluid mosaic model proposed in
1972 by Singer and Nicholson.
• The cell membrane encloses the contents of a cell and
controls the movement of substances between the
extracellular fluid outside the cell and the intracellular fluid (or
cytosol) inside the cell.
• The cell membrane therefore helps maintain an
environment within the cell that differs from the external
environment.
• As well as controlling the transport of molecules into and out
of the cell, the cell membrane is also involved
in cell recognition and communication with other cells.
Substance moving into the membrane
Substances needed by cells include the following:
- Gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide)
- Nutrients (sugar, amino acid, glycerol and fatty acids)
- Water
- Mineral salts dissolved in water are also required

Wastes that must leave the cell include:

- Urea (breakdown of protein in the liver)
- Uric acid (by product of purine/found in most food)
- Excess carbon dioxide

They could also be products secreted by the cells that may be needed to coat
the outside of cells or may pass
Fluid mosaic model
According to this model, cell membranes consist of a bilayer (two layers)
of phospholipid molecules.
• Phospho-: containing phosphate group
• Lipid: fatty oil

Other molecules, such as proteins, carbohydrates and cholesterol, are

scattered throughout the bilayer.
• The phospholipid bilayer of the cell membrane is called a bilayer because it
has two layers of phospholipids. Phospholipid molecules have a hydrophilic
(water-attracting) ‘head’ and two hydrophobic (water-repelling) ‘tails’.
• The hydrophilic heads form the outside and inside lining of the cell
membrane, and the hydrophobic tails of the two layers of phospholipids
meet in the middle.
 Fluid mosaic model: Why do we call it fluid?
• Phospholipids can rotate and move laterally within the membrane
• Unsaturated tail of phospholipids (double bonds) results in “kinks” that reduce
tight packing of the molecules, and increase fluidity of the membrane.
• Organisms can regulate the amount of unsaturated fatty acids in case of
temperature change. For example- When temperature is low, fatty acids become
solid. Therefore more fatty acids are introduced to keep the membrane fluid, not
crystallized.
Fluid mosaic model: Amoeba sisters

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