MODELS OF

COMMUNICATION
Basic Communication
Model
Aristotle’s Classical
Model
Shannon- Weaver’s
Mathematical Model

Wilbur Schramm’s Model

Laswell’s Model
 COMMUNICATION
MODELS

• ‘A model is a mechanistic perspective of human communication

that effectively tells at a glance how it works.’
• A model is the pictorial representation to show the structure of
communication process in which various components and
elements are linked.
• Communication model come in variety of forms, ranging from
catchy summations to diagrams to mathematical formulas.
• A good model comes too close to reality as possible and it
discusses and explains the reality as clearly as possible.
• Models are based on assumptions that theorists made as to how
communication functions and what effect it has upon individual
and society.
 SCOPE AND FUNCTION OF
MODELS OF COMMUNICATION

• Man is a communicating animal and has known the importance of communication.

• Today, man can communicate with various means, it has become much easier to
communicate a message to the other party.
• Every organization, no matter what their expertise and where they are situated, and
what scale they operate, realize and value the importance of good communication.
• The communication models help the business organizations and other institutions
to use different models for:
1. enhancing effective communication in the organization;
2. to understand how communication works;
3. how messages are transmitted;
4. how it is received by the other party and;
5. how the message is eventually interpreted and understood.
• The basic flow of communication:
Includes the sender who sends a message to the receiver and then
they share the feedback on the communication process.
• The methods of communication too need to be carefully considered
before you decide on which method to use for your purpose.
• Not all communication methods work for all transactions.
• Once the methods of communication have been understood, the next
step would be to consider various communication models.
• Due to the importance of communication, different types of models have
been introduced by experts over the years.
ARISTOTLE MODEL

• Aristotle, a great philosopher’s mass communication model called:

“Aristotle’s Model of Communication”.
• He proposed this model before 3000 B.C because he stated that the
audience role in communication chain is the most important element in
the communication process.
• This model is more focused on public speaking than interpersonal
communication.
• Aristotle Model of Communication is formed with 5 basic elements:
(i) Speaker,
(ii) Speech,
(iii) Occasion,
(iv) Audience and;
(v) Effect.
• Aristotle advises the speakers to build speech for different audience on
different time (occasion) for different effects.
• The speaker must prepare his speech and analyze the audience needs
before as the speaker plays an important role in Public Speaking.
• Speaker’s words should influence the audience mind and persuade their
thoughts.
Example:
Alexander gave brave speech to his soldiers in the war field to defeat
Persian Empire.
Speaker – Alexander
Speech – about his invasion
Occasion – War field
Audience – Soldiers
Effect – To defeat Persia
THE SHANNON-WEAVER MATHEMATICAL MODEL

• Claude Shannon developed the model in 1947.

• Later, with Warren Weaver, he perfected it.
• They were the first to develop an engineering model of human
communication based on telephone communication.
• Their basic model of communication presents it as a simple linear
process.
• They consider that the meaning is contained in the message: thus
improving the encoding will increase the semantic accuracy.
Shannon Weaver’s Model includes:
 The source (information source) typically refers to a person, group of
people with a given purpose (who then sends a message with the use of
a transmitter)
Source has to express the purpose in the form of a message which can be
formulated in some kind of code.
 Encoder/transmitter (encoder) could be any instrument (Phones to
computers and other devices) here the encoder is responsible for taking
the ideas of the source and putting them in code.
 Channel or signals that are sent and received depends upon the method
of communication.
 Decode: The receiver needs a decoder to translate the message in his/her
understanding
 Receiver/Destination : For communication to occur there must be
somebody at the other end of the channel. This person is called as the
receiver (information transmitters).
 Feedback is a vital part of communication.
This method is believed to have been derived from a mathematical
interpretation of communication for sending or transmitting the message
with the help of a technology.
The above diagram clearly illustrates how communication takes place, and
also helps one to determine what could go wrong.
Shannon and Weaver introduces the concept of Noise that refers to any
signals that may interfere with the message being carried. This again would
depend on the method of communication.
Shannon and Weaver identify three levels of
problems in the study of Communication:
Level A: Technical problems
How accurately can the symbols of communication be transmitted?
Level B: Semantic problems
How precisely do the transmitted symbols convey the desired
meaning?
Level C: Effectiveness problems
How effectively does the received meaning affect conduct in the
desired way?
WILBUR SCHRAMM’S
MODEL

• Wilbur Schramm has analysed and presented communication in a new

light in 1954.
• He emphasized on the communication with ourselves, communication
with other person, or a group of persons, communication with mass
audience.
• Schramm used Shannon and Weaver model to clarify the various concepts
of communication:
• He suggested that communication is a two-way process in which both the
sender and the receiver take turns playing the role of the encoder and the
decoder.
• Elements: Encoder/Sender, Decoder/Receiver, Redundancy, Feedback
(Response that a receiver makes to the source’s communication) and Noise
• These models have been followed by various other models such as the
'Helical' model, Aristotle's models and several other models.
• Schramm's Model has different components for communications:
• Sender (transmitter) is the person who sends the message.
Encoder is the person who converts the message to be sent into codes.
• Receiver/Decoder/Interpreter is the person who gets the message. He/she
decodes and interprets the actual message.
• Message is the data sent by the sender and information that the receiver
gets.
• Feedback is the process of responding to the received message by the
receiver.
• Medium or media is the channel used to send the message.
• Noise is the interference and interruptions caused during the process. It is
also created when the intended meaning of the message sent by the sender
and the meaning interpreted by the receiver is different which is known as
Semantic Noise.
ADVANTAGES OF SCHRAMM'S
MODEL OF COMMUNICATION

• Sender and receiver interchanges therefore both are equally active.

• Semantic noise is considered as a concept which helps in understanding
problems that can occur during the interpretation of message.
• Feedback makes it easier to know if the message is interpreted by the
receiver as intended or not therefore, makes the communication effective.
• Circular communication gives opportunity to both parties to give their
opinion.
• As it is dynamic and ever changing model, it is helpful in general practice.
 DISADVANTAGES OF SCHRAMM'S MODEL
OF COMMUNICATION

• This model can not deal with multiple levels of communication and
complex communication processes.
• There can only be two sources communicating, many sources
complicates the process and the model can not be implemented.
• Message sent and received might be interpreted differently than
intended.
LASWELL’S MODEL

Harold D. Laswell, an American political scientist, as a basic question:

WHO (Communicator/Speaker)
Says WHAT (Message)
In WHICH Channel (Medium)
To WHOM (Receiver/Audience)
With WHAT EFFECT (Effect)

WHO SAYS WHAT IN WHICH TO WHOM WITH WHAT

CHANNEL EFFECT
Source Studies Content Media Analysis Audience Effect Analysis
Analysis Analysis
• Lasswell states that in order to understand the process of mass
communication one has to understand each of the stages.
• It is still linear, it sees communication as the transmission of messages.
• It raises the issue of ‘effect’ rather than meaning.
• Effect means observable or measurable change in the receiver that is caused
by identifiable elements in the process.
• Any change in the elements will change the effect; we can change the
encoder, we can change the message, we can change the channel: each one
of these changes should produce the appropriate change in the effect.
• Most mass-communication research has implicitly followed this model.
• The work on institutions and their processes, on the producers of
communication, on the audience and how it is affected, clearly derives from
a process-based linear model.
Advanced Communication
Model
Newcomb’s Model
Westley-McLean’s
Model
George Gerbner’s Model
McCombs and Shaw’s
Agenda Setting Model
Spiral of Silence Model
 1. NEWCOMB’S MODEL

• The Newcomb’s model of communication

was introduced by Theodore M. Newcomb of the
University of Michigan in 1953.
• The Newcomb’s model works in a triangular format or ABX model of
communication:
A – Sender
B – Receiver
X – Matter of Concern
• The relationship between A and B is like:
1. student and teacher
2. government and public
3. newspaper and readers
• Sender and Receiver may work in a same flow but the time factor like “X” may
affect their flow of relationship.
• “X” may be third persons, issue, topic or policy.
For Example: Teachers introduce a new policy to increase the college timing from
6 hours to 8 hours.
A – Teachers B – Students X – Policy or issue
If both students (B) and teachers (A) are satisfied with this policy then the
communication maintains its equilibrium status between them. Otherwise the flow
of communication between “A” and “B” becomes trouble in the social system.
If “A” or “B” is not ready to accept the policy then it will directly affect the social
system and can’t maintain the equilibrium status.
So Teachers ”A” can convince students “B” as much as possible. Otherwise they
have to make some adjustments in the Policy “X” and convince them towards the
policy.
• It attempts at elucidating the role of communication plays in society on
social relationships and to maintain social equilibrium within the social
system.
• The model also indicates the increased relevance of communication as
the individuals need more and more information in the new age and fast
changing social environment.
• The model can help in perceiving each other’s problems and sharing
them.
• He does not include the message as a separate entity in his diagram,
implying it only by the use of directional arrows.
 2. WESTLEY-MCLEAN’S
MODEL
• Westley and MacLean’s model of communication is proposed by Bruce
Westley (1915-1990) and Malcolm S. MacLean Jr (1913-2001) in 1957.
• It states that communication starts when the person responds to
something from his/her surroundings.
• The person receives the message from the surrounding environment and then
responds according to his/her object of orientation.
• This model can be seen in two contexts; interpersonal and mass
communication. And the point of difference between interpersonal and mass
communication is the feedback; In interpersonal, the feedback is direct and
fast and in the mass, the feedback is indirect and slow.
X1, X2, X3 and X4….—are news articles or information, Feedback (f), Clients
(A), Reader or Audience (B) and Gate Keeper (c).
 COMPONENTS IN THE
COMMUNICATION PROCESS FOR
THE MODEL
• Source (A) - Source is the sender and message creator.
• Receiver (B) - The person who gets the message sent by the source and
the person who interprets according to his/her objects of orientation.
• Gatekeeper (C) - Gatekeepers are found in mass communication. The
gatekeeper is the editor who filters the message as per the needs of the
audience and media institution.
• Feedback (f) – The response after the interpretation of the information.
FBA – Feedback from receiver to source.
FCA – Feedback from gate keeper to source
FBC – feedback from receiver to gate keeper
• X1, X2, X3, X4 – are the situations/channels which are influencing the
flow of information as well as what type of information to be shared
with the receiver.
According to Westely and Maclean:
• Communication does not begin when one person starts to talk, but rather when
a person responds selectively to his/her physical surroundings.
• This model considers a strong relation between responds from surroundings
and the process of communication.
• Communication begins only when a person receives a message from
surroundings.
• Each receiver responds to the message they received based on their object of
orientation.
• The message created is encoded after understanding the environmental
response.
• The message is then transmitted to another respondent who will interpret the
information differently according to his/her object of orientation and provide
feedback to the sender.
• Gatekeeper decides which information should be shared with the audience
depending upon the kind of effect it will create.
Example:
A Daily News Papers will receive many Press releases from Many Public
Relations Agencies on behalf of their clients. In this case, Newspaper will
publish the selected Press release due to the space constraints. Then, Readers
can directly respond to the client or they can respond to the News daily which
published in the Newspaper. If Readers responded to daily News paper, it will
communicate the feedback to concerned PR Agency.
X1, X2 and X3—are Press Release, Feedback (f), Clients (A), Reader (B) and
Daily News Paper (Gate Keeper) (C)
1. Feedback Loop between Reader (B) and News Paper (C) – fBC
2. Feedback Loop between News Paper(C ) and Client (A)- fCA
3. Feedback loop between Reader (B) and Client (A)- fBA.
 MERITS AND DEMERITS

• This model accounts for Feedback.

• It can account for different modes of communication, i.e., for both
interpersonal communication, group and Mass communication.
• It is a predictive and descriptive model of communication.
• Social and other factors are included in object of orientation.
• It also account for non-binary interactions, this means that it will remain
good even for communications involving more than two sources.
• Westley and Maclean communication model is Two Dimensional.
• It cannot account for multi dimensions; this means this model will not
be applicable for typical communication events that involve broader
context and wide range of communication messages.
 ‘
3. GEORGE GERBNER’S
MODEL

• Was founded by George Gerbner’s, a communication professor in 1956

• It was an expansion of Laswell’s Model of communication.
• This model claims that communication is a process of perception or active
perception
• It suggests that the human communication process may be regarded as
subjective, selective, variable and unpredictable.
• This model stresses on the necessity of creative, interactive nature of perceptual
process and the importance of contextual meaning and comprehensive dealing
of human communication.
• As the human variables are unpredictable and human communication systems
are open therefore it is comprehensive and complicated to interpret the meaning
of it.
• This model does not explain the implications of the message for the receiver.
• The model shape can change depending upon the nature or content of
communication.
 M = Man/Machine

E1= Perceived message by ‘M’

E = Event

The Model starts from E

(Event)

SOMEONE
PERCEIVES the EVENTS
AND REACTS
IN A SITUATION
THROUGH SOME MEANS
TO MAKE AVAILABLE MATERIALS
E = Content IN SOME FORM
AND CONTEXT
2 Content created by ‘M’ CONVEYING CONTENT
WITH SOME CONSEQUENCES
S=
Shape/Signal(Form)
Perceptual Dimension:
• An ‘E’ is an event happens in the real life or message content
• ‘M’ (Man or a Machine) perceiving the information
• E1 is the process of perceiving information from E to M. It is different from ‘E’
because any (M) man or machine can’t perceives the whole event and they
perceives only the part of the event (E1). This is known as “Perceptual
Dimension”.
• These 3 factors are involves between ‘E’ and ‘M’
Selection
Context
Availability
• M (man or machine) cannot perceive the entire content of the event “E”. So
M selects the interesting or needed content from the entire event and filters the
other information.
• The context occurs within the event (E) and what is the nature of the event.
• Availability is based on ‘M’s attitude, mood, culture and personality.
(For eg. How a journalist perceives the messages from the event and also can’t
focus the whole event so they filter the unwanted or unrelated content from the
event. This filtered content is not same as like the actual event content because the
journalist edits the content based on his attitude, mood and cultural background or
press policies).
(ii) Means and Controls dimension:
• E2 is the event which is drawn or artified by M. (produce something
meaningful and creative.)
• Here, M becomes the source of a message about E to send someone else.
• M creates a statement or signals about the message and that is termed its
Form and content as “SE2”.
• S (Signal or Form) it and E2 (Man’s content). Here Content (E2) is
structured or formed (S) by ‘M’ and it can communicate in a different ways
or based on the structured ways.
• Here it depends on Man to how effectively he can make use of the channel
of communication.
• Eg: If using a verbal channel, how good is he using words? If using the
Internet, how good is he at using new technology and words?
• This process can be extended to infinitum by adding on other receivers (M2,
M3etc.) who have further perceptions (SE3, SE4 etc.) of the statements
about perceived events.
Important Note:
Message at every level is altered or changed.
 4. MC COMBS AND
SHAW’S AGENDA
SETTING MODEL

• Developed by Maxwell Mac Combs and Donald Shaw

• This is more a theory than a model
• It basically describes the powerful influence of media within the society.
• It was established by studying the political campaigns of America from
1968, 72, 76 (American Presidential election)
• It indicated that mass media to a greater degree was able to influence the
voters decisions.
• Two elements were focused:
Awareness
Information
• Two key assumptions:
1. The media does not reflect the reality rather they filter and shape it.
2. Media concentration on few issues leads to the public to perceive those issues as more
important than other issues
Time plays an important role in the whole phenomena.
Types of agenda settings;
3. Public agenda settings
4. Media agenda settings
5. Policy agenda settings
Agenda setting is greatly dependent upon the aspect of accessibility:
6. The more prominent the courage of news story by media, the more the audience is able to
create memories.
7. Mass courage alone can help in setting the agenda
Gate keeping plays a critical role here
Ways of setting agenda:
1. Priming
• Where media proposes, values and standards by which objects of media
attention can be judged.
• Where media is selecting which news should be given importance
• Repetition plays a critical role.
2. Framing
• Framing is a process of shaping up of the content.
• Audience adopts the frame of reference to see the world in a similar
manner.
• It focuses on how people can gives information to news segments.
 5. SPIRAL OF SILENCE
MODEL

• The theory was founded by a German political scientist; Elisabeth

Noelle-Neumann (1916 – 2010) in 1974
• She introduced the “spiral of silence” as an attempt to explain in part
how public opinion is formed.
decode the status of Jews
• The model/theory was used to
during World War II, Nazi’s control.
• People out of fear of separation or isolation around them
tend to keep their attitudes to themselves when they think
they are in minority. This process is called as Spiral of
Silence.
They frame work based on few assumptions:
1. Spiral of silence theory describe as a dynamic process where the
predication about public opinion in mass media is more in favour of the
dominant community than the minority community.
2. People have fear of rejection or fear of isolation in this social
environment to express their opinion or views.
3. Maximum numbers get more vocal space in the society and lesser
number become less vocal or become silent.
 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES:

1. Spiral of Silence theory has both micro level and macro level
explanatory process.
2. It works well during the political campaign and media effect.
3. Spiral of silence theory helps to raise relevant question about
considering the role and responsibility of media in the society.
4. does not take alternative opinions in considerations even if they are
valid.
5. It only reflects more of the negative rather than positive within the
society.
Example:
In a company, the managing director decides to increase their working hour
from 8 to 10 and send e-mail to all employees. Majority of them accept this
time changes and few employees are not satisfied with his decision. But
they cannot or ready to express their thought publicly.
Because
1. They may feel unsupported by the other employees.
2. “Fear of isolation” like transfer
3. “Fear of Rejection” By rejecting their personal opinion from the public
will help to avoid fight.
4. They may try to save their job by suppressing or avoid personal
statement in public.