Theory of

Automata
GRAMMER

Presented to
Dr. Saliah Zahoor
 Group Members

Hafiz Khizar Usama Ijaz Maham Rani

20021519-003 20021519-031 20021519-125
01 Maham Rani
20021519-125
 Basics of Grammar

History:
Noam Chomsky gave a Mathematical model of Grammar which is effective for writing computer
languages.
Grammar :
It is a finite set of formal rules for generating syntactically correct sentences or meaningful correct
sentences.
Constitute Of Grammar :
Basically composed of two elements:
i. Terminal Symbols → represented by small letters(a,b,c)
ii. Non-Terminal Symbols/Auxiliary Symbols/ Variables → represented by Capital letters (A,B,C)
 Components
Formal Definition of Grammar :
Any Grammar can be represented by 4 tuples → <V, T, P, S>
∑ → Input Symbol
V → Finite Non-Empty Set of Non-Terminal Symbols. (In Capital letters) (A,S,B)
T → Finite Set of Terminal Symbols. (In small letters) (a to z, 0 to 9, λ)
P → Finite Non-Empty Set of Production Rules.
S → Start Symbol (Symbol from where we start producing our sentences or strings).
Production Rules :
A production or production rule in computer science is a rewrite rule specifying a symbol substitution
that can be recursively performed to generate new symbol sequences.

Grammar will be for both type of languages:

i. Regular
ii. Non-Regular
 Example-1 :
Consider Grammar G1 = <V, T, P, S>

V = {S,A,B}
T = {a,b}
S=S
Production Rule:
S → AB
A →a
B→b
Solution:
S ⇒ AB ⇒aB ⇒ab
Thus, String “ab” can be drive using the above grammar.
Derivation Order Regular Grammar
Regular Grammar can be divided into two
types:
Right Linear Grammar Left Linear Grammar
A Grammar is said to be Right Linear if all productions are of the A Grammar is said to be Left Linear if all productions are of the form
form
A →Bx
A →xB A →x
A →x Where A,B ∈ V and x ∈ T
Where A,B ∈ V and x ∈ T
Example: S →abS │b Example: S →Sbb │b
Example: S →AB Example: S →AB
A→aaA │λ A→aaA │λ
B→Bb │λ B→Bb │λ
S ⇒ AB [by S → AB] S ⇒ AB [by S → AB]
S ⇒ ABb [by B→Bb ] S ⇒ aaAB [by A→aaA ]
S ⇒ Aλb ⇒ Ab [by B→λ] S ⇒ aaλB ⇒ aaB [by A→λ]
S ⇒ aaAb [by A→aaA ] S ⇒ aaBb [by B→Bb ]
S ⇒ aaλb ⇒ aab [by A→λ] S ⇒ aaλb ⇒ aab [by B→λ]
 Derivation of Grammar
The set of all strings that can be derived from a Grammar is said to be the Language generated from the grammar.
Example:
Consider the grammar G1
V = {S,A}
T = {a,b}
S=S
Production Rule:
S → aAb
aA →aaAb
A→λ
Solution:
S ⇒ aAb [by S → aAb]
S ⇒ aaAbb [by aA →aaAb]
S ⇒ aaaAbbb [by aA →aaAb]
S ⇒ aaa λ bbb ⇒ aaabbb [by A → λ]
Context Free Languages (CFL)
In Formal language theory, a context free language is a language generated by some Context Free
Grammar.
The set of all CFL is identical to the set of languages accepted by Pushdown Automata.
CFL is represented by 4 tuples G → <V, ∑, P, S>
∑ → Input Symbol
V → Finite Non-Empty Set of Non-Terminal Symbols. (In Capital letters) (A,S,B)
T → Finite Set of Terminal Symbols. (In small letters) (a to z, 0 to 9, λ)
P → Finite Non-Empty Set of Production Rules.
S → Start Symbol (Symbol from where we start producing our sentences or strings).
CFL has production Rule of the form
A→a
Where, a {V ∪ ∑}* and A ∈ V
Example:
Equal No. of a’s and equal no. of b’s
CFG will be defined as
V = {S,A}
T = {a,b}
Production Rule:
S → aAb
A →aAb│ λ
Solution:
S ⇒ aAb [by S → aAb]
S ⇒ aaAbb [by A →aAb]
S ⇒ aaaAbbb [by A →aAb]
S ⇒ aaa λ bbb ⇒ aaabbb [by A → λ]
 Note
One Grammar is of one to more languages
One Language can have more than one grammar
02 Hafiz Khizar
20021519-003
 Derivation Tree/ Parse Tree
A Derivation or Parse Tree is an ordered rooted tree that graphically represents the semantic
information of strings derived from a Context Free Grammar.
Example:
For the Grammar G = {V,T,P,S}, where S →0B, A →1AA│ λ , B → 0AA
S

0 B

0 A Root vertex Must be labelled by the start Symbol

A
Vertex Labelled by Non- Terminal Symbols

Leaves Labelled by Terminal Symbols or λ

1 A A λ

λ λ
 Chomsky Normal Form (CNF)
A Grammer is said to be in CNF:
If each terminal produce exactly one non terminal
If each terminal produce exactly two terrminals

S E O C E T (Small equls to one , Capital equals to two)

S -> RB
Y -> b
R -> AX
A -> a
X -> m
Example
S -> XaX | bY |Y
X -> XaX | XbX |
Y -> ab

Step 1 remove null production:

S -> XaX | bY | Y | aX | Xa | a
X- > XaX | XbX | aX | Xa | a | bX | Xb | b
Y -> ab
Step 2: Remove unit production (captiol into small+add new rule)
S -> XaX | bY | y | aX | Xa | a
X- > XaX | XbX | aX | Xa | a | bX | Xb | b
Y -> ab
Y -> y
Step 3 : Convery all mix terms into Captials (solid non- terminals)
S -> XAX | BY | y | AX | XA | a
X- > XAX | XBX | AX | XA | a | BX | XB | b If small are more than one ,
Y -> AB convert it into capital

Y -> y
A -> a
B -> b
Step 4: Reduce the length of each non terminals utp 2 and add new
rules
S -> XR | BY | y | AX | XA | a
R -> AX
X- > XR | XT | AX | XA | a | BX | XB | b
T -> BX
Y -> AB
Y -> y
A -> a
B -> b
 Example for u:
S -> AB | λ Reminder!
A -> a | λ SEOCET
(Small equls to one , Capital equals to two)
B -> BC | b
C -> c

S → AB | B | A | λ
A→a|λ
B → BD | b
D→C
C→c
03 Usama Ijaz
20021519-031
 Greibach Normal Form (GNF).
As we know, we represent Context-Free-Grammar in two ways.
i) CNF
ii) GNF

If all the productions are in the form of .

Where ‘V’ is the variables and ‘a’ is the terminal.

Examples:
1) A  a
2) A  aB
3) A  aABCb
 CFG TO GNF
Let say we have a CFG
S  abSb | aa
As, we know GNF must be in the form of Now, we will convert it into a GNF.
STEP 1.
we will introduce a variable corresponding to all terminals.
Bb
A a
Now, we will subtitude these variables into the CFG.
STEP 2.
S  aBSB || aA
 CNF TO GNF
Let say we have a CNF Grammar:
S  AB | BC
A a
Bb
C  AB | a
as we can see its not following the rules of GNF. GNF rules are:

So according to this rule:

S  AB | BC (Not in GNF )
A a (In GNF)
Bb (In GNF)
C  AB | a (‘AB’ is not in GNF but ‘a’ is in GNF)
We will apply some substitution here:
substitude A  a into S  AB | BC so it’ll become
S  aB | BC
again , we will subsitude B  b into this
S  aB | bc

So the new form is :

S  aB | bc
A a
B
C  AB | a
But C  AB is not in GNF so we will substitude A  a into this
C  aB | a
So now our CNF is completely converted into GNF.
S  aB | bc
A a
Bb
C  aB | a
 CONVERSION
Example:
S -> aAB | λ
A -> b | aA
B -> BC | b
C -> c
Step 1: Eliminate ε-productions (productions that derive the empty string)
S -> aAB | AB | aA | aB | a | B | A | λ
A -> b | RA
R -> a
B -> BC | b
C -> c

Step 2: Eliminate unit productions (productions of the form A → B).

No unit productions exist in the updated grammar after handling ε-productions.

Step 3: Eliminate terminals from right-hand sides of productions with more
than one
S -> aAB | AB | aA | aB | a | B | A
A -> B | aA | aB | a | b
B -> BC | b
C -> c

Step 4: Convert remaining productions into Greibach Normal For

S -> aAB | AB | aA | aB | a | B | A
A -> B | aA | aB | a | b
B -> BC | b
C -> c
 Example for u
S -> aSb | AB | λ Reminder!!
Non-Terminal (Terminal)(non-terminal) (non-terminal)

A -> aA | a Or
Non-Terminal (Terminal)

B -> bBc | BC | d
Answer:

S → aSb | Sb | aS | S | AB | aA | ABb | Ab | A | aB | Bb | B | λ
A → aA | a
B → Bc | BC | bBc | b | d
C→c
Thank
you