Heavy Construction Equipment and

Machinery (Ceng 7011)

Bahir Dar University

Faculty of Civil and Water Resources Engineering

MSc in Construction Technology and Management

Program

TADESSE AYALEW
October 2017
1
 Session II
O4 Types of Construction Equipment
Construction Equipment Earthwork Equipments
and Plants
Hauling and Hoisting Equipments

Concreting Equipment and

Construction Plants
O5 Planning and Scheduling
Construction Equipment
The Management of
Construction Equipment The Buy, Lease, or Rent Decision

Construction Equipments
Maintenance Management

2
 Content
O4 Types of Construction
Construction Equipment Equipment
and Plants Earthwork Equipments

Hauling and Hoisting

Equipments
Construction Plants

3
 4.Construction Equipment
4.1 Introduction

 It is a common fact to find a wide variety of construction machines on

every construction sites, which make the construction jobs easy, safe and
quicker.
 Equipment are used for highway projects, irrigation, buildings, power

projects etc. In construction 15-30% of total project cost has been

accounted towards equipment and machinery.
 The selection of appropriate type and size of construction equipment for

specific use often affects the required amount of time and effort and thus
the job-site productivity of a project.
 It is therefore important for project managers and construction planners

to be familiar with the characteristics of the major types of equipment

4
most commonly used in construction.
 4.Construction Equipment
4.2 Advantages of utilizing the construction equipment’s:
Advantages of utilizing the construction equipment’s:
 Increase the rate of output through work progress with the best

effective and efficient methods.

 Reduce the overall construction costs especially for large
contracts.
 Carry out activities which cannot be done manually or to do them

more economically and much faster.

 Eliminate the heavy manual work by human thus reducing fatigue

and eliminates various other hazards and health issues.

 Maintain the planned rate of production where there is a shortage of

skilled or unskilled labor.

 Maintain the high quality standards often required by present-day
5
design and specifications (technical standards).
 4.Construction Equipment
4.3 Classification of Construction Equipment

 Depending on the application, construction machines are

classified into various categories;

 Earth-moving equipment

 Earth-compacting equipment

 Hauling equipment

 Hoisting equipment

 Conveying equipment

 Aggregate production equipment

 Equipment's used in Concrete Construction.

6  Pile-driving equipment
7
8
9
 4.3.1 EARTH-MOVING EQUIPMENTS
4.3.1.1 Excavators
Excavators are heavy construction equipment consisting of a boom, stick,
bucket and cab on a rotating platform (known as the "house"). The house sits
atop an undercarriage with tracks or wheels.

Excavators are used in many ways:

 Digging of trenches, holes, foundations
 Material handling
 Brush cutting with hydraulic attachments
 Demolition
 General grading/landscaping
 Heavy lift, e.g. lifting and placing of pipes
 Mining, especially, but not only open-pit
mining
 River dredging
 Driving piles, in conjunction with a pile drive

10
 4.3.1 EARTH-MOVING EQUIPMENTS
4.3.1.2 Back hoe
 A backhoe, also called a rear actor or back

actor, is a piece of excavating equipment or

digger consisting of a digging bucket on the end
of a two-part articulated arm. They are typically
mounted on the back of a tractor or front loader.

 Backhoes are mainly used to clean up

construction areas, to dig holes in the ground, to
smooth uneven ground, to make trenches, ditches
and to help remove deep roots from trees.

 It is used to excavate below the natural surface on

which it rests. Generally used to excavate

trenches, pits for basements and also for grading
works, which requires precise control of depths.
11
 4.3.1 EARTH-MOVING EQUIPMENTS
4.3.1.3 Front shovel
A front shovel (also stripping shovel or power shovel or electric mining shovel or
Dipper Shovel's power shovel) is a bucket-equipped machine, usually electrically
powered, used for digging and loading earth or fragmented rock and for mineral
extraction.
 They are mounted on crawler tracks.

 It is used to excavate earth of all classes except hard

rock and load it into wagons.

 Basics parts of power shovel including the track

system, cabin, cables, rack, stick, boom foot-pin,

saddle block, boom, boom point sheaves and bucket.

 Power shovels are used principally for excavation

and removal of overburden in open-cut mining

operations, though it may include loading of
12
minerals, such as coal.
 4.3.1 EARTH-MOVING EQUIPMENTS
4.3.1.4 Dragline
 They are used to excavate soft earth from below

ground and to deposit or to load in wagons. They are

suitable for bulk excavation below its track level in
loose soils, marshy land and areas containing water.
 Unlike the shovel, it has a long light crane boom and

the bucket is loosely attached to the boom through

cables.
 Because of this construction, a dragline can dig and

dump over larger distances than a shovel can do.

 Drag lines are useful for digging below its track level

and handling softer materials.

 The basic parts of a drag line including the boom,

hoist cable, drag cable, hoist chain, drag chain and

13
bucket.
 4.3.1 EARTH-MOVING EQUIPMENTS
4.3.1.5 Clamshell
 It consists of a hydraulically controlled bucket
suspended from a lifting arm. It is mainly used for deep
confined cutting in pits and trenches.
 It is having bucket of two halves which are hinged

together at top. It is used to excavate soft to medium

materials and loose materials.
 This is so named due to resemblance of its bucket to a

clam which is like a shell-fish with hinged double shell.

 The front end is essentially a crane boom with a

specially designed bucket loosely attached at the end

through cables as in a drag line.
 The capacity of a clam shell bucket is usually given in

cubic meters.
 The basic parts of clam shell bucket are the closing line,
14
hoist line, sheaves, brackets, tagline, shell and hinge.
 Comparison between different types of equipment

15
 4.3.1 EARTH-MOVING EQUIPMENTS
4.3.1.6 Bulldozer
 A bulldozer is a crawler (continuous tracked

tractor) equipped with a substantial metal

plate (known as a blade) used to push large
quantities of soil, sand, rubble, or other such
material during construction or conversion
work and typically equipped at the rear with a
claw-like device (known as a ripper) to loosen
densely-compacted materials.
 They are used for moving earth up to a

distance of about 100m and act as a towing

tractor and pusher to scraper machines. They
can be track-mounted or wheel-mounted.
 The heavy blade attached to the tractor pushes
16
the material from one place to another.
 4.3.1 EARTH-MOVING EQUIPMENTS
4.3.1.7 Scraper
 It is a device to scrap the ground & load it

simultaneously, transport it over required

distance. It can dig, load, haul and discharge
the material in uniformly thick layers.
 The scraper can transport its load to the fill

area where the blade is raised, the back

panel of the hopper, or the ejector, is
hydraulically pushed forward and the load
tumbles out. Then the empty scraper returns
to the cut site and repeats the cycle.
 They are used for site levelling, loading,

hauling over distances varying between

150m-900m. They may be towed, two-axle
17
or three-axle type.
 4.3.1 EARTH-MOVING EQUIPMENTS
4.3.1.8 Grader
 A grader, also commonly referred to as a road

grader, a blade, a maintainer, or a motor grader,

is a construction machine with a long blade used to
create a flat surface.
 In civil engineering, the grader's purpose is to

"finish grade" (refine, set precisely) the "rough

grading" performed by heavy equipment or
engineering vehicles such as scrapers and
bulldozers.
 Graders are commonly used in the construction and

maintenance of roads. In the construction of paved

roads they are used to prepare the base course to
create a wide flat surface for the asphalt to be
placed on.

18  It is self propelled or towed machine motor grader,

Used for light or medium works. It shapes the
 4.3.1 EARTH-MOVING EQUIPMENTS
4.3.1.9 Loader
 A loader is a heavy equipment machine often used

in construction, primarily used to lift material (such

as asphalt, demolition debris, dirt, snow, feed,
gravel, logs, raw minerals, recycled material, rock,
sand, and woodchips) into or onto another type of
machinery (such as a dump truck, conveyor belt,
feed-hopper, or railcar).

19
 4.3.1 EARTH-MOVING EQUIPMENTS
4.3.1.10 Trenching Machine
 Trenchers, or ditchers as they are
sometimes called, are similar to excavators
in the sense that they penetrate the earth,
breaking soil and rock, and remove it from
the ground. They differ from excavators in
that the soil is removed in one continuous
movement. Trenchers are specifically used
for digging trenches for pipes, but other
machines have been improvised in the past
to serve this purpose.
 Trenchers can come in two types: ladder

trenchers and wheel trenchers, and can dig

20
trenches at speeds that other machines
 4.3.1 EARTH-MOVING EQUIPMENTS
4.3.1.11 Tractor
 Multi-purpose machines used mainly

for pulling and pushing the other

equipment.
 Tractors may be classified as

 Crawler type tractor- Used to move

bull dozers, scrapers. The crawler has a

chain by which these tractors can be
very effective even in the case of loose
or muddy soils.
 Wheel type tractor- The engine is

mounted on four wheels. The main

21 advantage is higher speed, that enables
 4.3.1 EARTH-MOVING EQUIPMENTS
4.3.1.12 PRODUCTION OF EARTH-MOVING EQUIPMENTS

 Once the equipment needs for an activity have been

identified, the next step is to conduct an equipment

productivity analysis to select the optimum size.
 The objective is to determine the number of units and

the size of equipment that would permit the contractor

to accomplish the activity with a duration resulting in
the lowest cost possible.

22
4.3.1 EARTH-MOVING EQUIPMENTS
4.3.1.12 PRODUCTION OF EARTH-MOVING EQUIPMENTS (Cont…)

 The basic relationship  The term volume per cycle

represents the average volume of

for estimating
material moved per equipment
production for all cycle. Thus the nominal capacity

earthmoving of the equipment such as

excavator or haul unit should be

equipment is;
modified with appropriate fill

factor based on the type of

materials and equipments to be

involved
Equipment Travel Time
Before discussing the productivity of Loader , Dozer and Hauling Equipment

lets see how we can determine the effective grade resistance which affects the

speed of the equipment that in turn has an impact on the Variable time

Component of the cycle time

Equipment Travel Time (Cont…)
Equipment Travel Time (Cont…)
Equipment Travel Time (Cont…)
Example 4.1
Productivity of an equipment

 Productivity of an equipment can be classified as peak

or theoretical and actual;

 Peak Productivity is the theoretical productivity governed

by design limitations only.

 Actual Productivity on the other hand is the productivity

of an equipment after due consideration of the differently

influencing factors
• Equation 4.1
Productivity of an equipment (Cont…)

 From productivity concept equipments can be broadly

classified into two;
 Cyclic Operating or

 Continuously Operating

A. Cyclic Operating Equipments

 These are machines which are intentionally or
unintentionally influenced by their operators. The theoretical
productivity can be computed from;
Equation 4.2
Productivity of an equipment (Cont…)
Productivity of an equipment (Cont…)

B. Continuously Operating Equipments

 These are machines that continuously operate, like pumps,

conveyer belts, etc. For these kinds of machines:

 A) Productivity of Shovel Family and
Excavators

 The actual productivity of the shovel family is dependent on

the actual volume per cycle and the cycle time. Thus, to
compute the actual productivity one should be able to make a
good estimate of the actual bucket capacity (which depends on
the soil characteristics) and the cycle time.
 The actual productivity of these equipments can be estimated

from the following expression;

Equation 4.3
 A) Productivity of Shovel Family and Excavators (Cont…)

 To utilize Equation 4 ‐ 3 for estimating the production of

shovel family or an excavator, it is necessary to know the
volume of material actually contained in one bucket load. The
methods by which excavator bucket and dozer are given in
Table 4 – 1.

Table 4.1, bucket capacity rating methods for various types of excavating and
loading equipments
 Heaped volume is the maximum
volume that can be placed in the bucket
Cont…
without spillage based on a specified
angle of repose for the material in the
bucket. (based on a 2:1 slope above hauler
Struck capacity is the bucket
bodies)
capacity when the load is struck

off flush with the bucket sides

(Material measured straight

across the top of the body)

 Plate line or Water line capacity assumes a

level of material flush with the lowest edge of
the bucket
A) Productivity of Shovel Family and Excavators (Cont…)
 A better estimate of the volume of material in one bucket load will be

obtained by multiplying the nominal bucket volume with a bucket fill

factor or bucket efficiency factor.
 Suggested values of bucket fill factor for common soils are given in

Table 2-2.
 The most accurate estimate of bucket load is obtained by multiplying

the heaped bucket volume (loose measure) by the bucket fill factor.
A) Productivity of Shovel Family and Excavators (Cont…)

If desired, the bucket load may be converted to bank volume

by multiplying its loose volume by the soil’s load factor. This
procedure is illustrated with the following examples,
A.1) Productivity of Excavator
 Production of a hydraulic excavator then can be estimated by

using Equation 4 ‐ 5 together with Tables 4.2 through 4.5

which have been prepared from manufacturers’ data,

Equation 4.5
Example 4.2

Find the expected production in loose cubic meter (LCM) per

hour of a small hydraulic excavator, If it its heaped bucket
capacity is 0.57 m3. The material is sand and gravel with a
bucket fill factor of 0.95. Job efficiency is 50 min/h. Average
depth of cut is 4.3m. Maximum depth of cut is 6.1m and
average swing is 90 degree.
Solution
 PRODUCTIVITY OF SHOVEL FAMILY

A. Productivity of Dragline
 Data are taken from “Liebher’s Technical Hand Book Earth moving
Product line”.
Drag Line Production = Dragline Capacity (m3) x C x f
Where, C = Theoretical Cycles/hr = 120 Cycles/hr
f = Correcting factor
= f1 x f 2 x f 3 x f 4 x f 5 x f 6 x f 7

f2 – Digging factor
Boom Length (m) 12 18 24 30
Digging factor,f2 0.86 0.79 0.72 0.65

f3 – Hoist factor
Boom Length (m) 12 18 24 30
44 Hoist factor,f3 0.95 0.92 0.90 0.87
 A. Productivity of Dragline (Cont.…)
f1 - Fill factor
Class Fill factor
1 Sand or fine gravel
a) Dry 1.1 to 1.2
b) Damp 1.0 to 1.1
c) Wet 0.9 to 0.8

2 Clay
a) Sandy clay, dry 0.95 to 1.0
b) Cohesive, dry 0.9 to 0.95
c) Very cohesive, hard 0.88 to 0.9

3 Earth with sand or gravel, dry 0.85 to 0.88

4 Top Soil
a) Sandy clay 0.82 to 0.85
b) Clay damp 0.80 to 0.82

5 Clay with sand or gravel, damp 0.75 to 0.80

6 Slatelike rock, gravel 0.72 to 0.75
7 Gravel with clay, hard 0.70 to 0.72

45 8 Clay with large size gravel, damp 0.68 to 0.70

 A. Productivity of Dragline

f4 – Swing factor (Simultaneous swing and hoist)

Angle of Swing (deg) 90° 120° 180°
Swing factor, f4 0.98 0.95 0.91

f5 – Loading factor
Method of dumping Truck Hopper Stock pile
Loading factor, f5 0.96 0.95 1.0

f6 – Job efficiency factor

Actual working time 60 min/hr 50 min/hr 40 min/hr
Job efficiency factor, f6 1.0 0.83 0.67

f7 – Operator factor
Operator Experienced Average Beginner
Operator factor, f7 1.0 0.95 0.85
46
 A. Productivity of Dragline
Example 3

 An experienced operator has to excavate ‘wet gravel’ with a dragline

capacity of 2.3 m3. The boom length is 18m and the swing angle will be
120 degrees. The material is dumped onto stockpile. Actual working
time is 50 min per hour.
Solution
Drag line production = Bucket capacity x C x f.
where C = theoretical cycles/hr = 120 cycles/hr
= 2.3 x 120 x f
where f = f1 x f2 x f3 x f4 x f5 x f6 x f7 = 0.8x0.79x0.92x0.95x1.0x0.83x1.0
= 0.4588
Therefore, Drag line production = 2.3x120x0.4588
= 126.4 m3/hr
47
 B. Productivity of Clamshell

 Data are taken from “Liebher’s Technical Hand Book Earth moving
Product line”.
Clamshell Production (m3/hr)= Clamshell Capacity (m3) x C x f
Where, C = Theoretical Cycles/hr = 120 Cycles/hr
f = Correcting factor
= f1 x f 2 x f 3 x f 4 x f 5 x f 6 x f 7
Correction factors
 f1 – Fill factor
 Same as those for dragline.

48
 B. Productivity of Clamshell

f2 – Digging factor
Clamshell capacity (m3) 1 2 3 4 5
Digging factor, f2 = 0.98 0.97 0.96 0.96 0.95

f3 – Hoist factor (considering average rope speed of 50m/min)

Digging depth (m) 5 10 15 20
Hoist factor, f3 = 0.88 0.76 0.64 0.52

f4 – Swing factor
Swing Angle (deg) 60 90 120 180
Swing factor, f4= 1.2 1.0 0.98 0.90

f5 – Dump factor
Method of dumping Truck Hopper Stock pile
49Dump factor, f5 = 0.90 0.95 1.0
 B. Productivity of Clamshell

f6 – Job efficiency factor

Actual working time 60 min/hr 50 min/hr 40 min/hr
Job efficiency factor, f6 = 1.0 0.83 0.67

f7 – Operator factor
Operator Experienced Average Beginner
Operator factor, f7 = 1.0 0.95 0.85

Example 4
 An average operator has to excavate ‘damp sand’ with a clamshell of

2.0 m3. The digging depth is 10m and the swing angle will be 120
degrees. The sand is added into trucks and actual working time is 50
min/hr.

50
 B. Productivity of Clamshell

Solution
Clamshell production = Clamshell capacity x C x f.
where C = theoretical cycles/hr
= 2.0 x 120 x f
where, f = f1 x f2 x f3 x f4 x f5 x f6 x f7
= 1.0 x 0.97 x 0.76 x 0.98 x 0.9 x 0.83 x 0.95
= 0.5127
Therefore, Clamshell Production = 2.0x120x0.5127
= 123.0 m3/hr

51
A.2 Productivity of Loaders

 Loader production can be estimated as the product of average

bucket multiplied by cycles per hour (Equation 4 – 3).

 Basic cycle time for a loader includes the time required for

loading, dumping, making four reversals of direction, and

travelling a minimum distance (less than 5 m for track loaders).
 The important aspect is determining the actual travel time. Travel

times shall be determined from manufacturer’s performance

curves.
Loader Basic Cycle and Travel Time
Example 4. 5

Estimate the hourly Production in loose Volume (LCM) of

2.68M3 of wheel loader excavating sand and gravel (Average
Material) From Pit and moving it to a stockpile. The average
travel distance is 200ft (61m), the effective grade is 6%, the
average fill factor is 1 and Job Efficiency is 50min/hr.
A.3 Productivity of Dozers

 The basic earth moving production equation (Equation 2 – 3) may be

applied in estimating dozer production.

 This method requires an estimate of the average blade load and the

dozer cycle time.

 There are several methods available for estimating average blade

load, including the blade manufacturer’s capacity rating, previous

experience under similar conditions, and actual measurement of
several typical loads. Blade volume can be computed by using the
following equation:
Example 4.6

A power shit crawler tractor has a rated blade capacity of 7.65

Lm3. The dozer is excavating a loose common earth and pushing
it a distance of 80 m. Maximum reverse speed in third range is 8
km/hr and dozing speed is 4.0 km/hr. The fixed time for a power
shift transmission is 0.05 min. Estimate the production of the
dozer if the job efficiency is 55 min/hr and load factor is 0.90.
Solution
B) Productivity of Graders

 Grader production is usually calculated on a linear basis

(kilometers completed per hour) for a road way projects and on

an area basis (square meters per hour) for general construction
projects. The time required to complete a roadway may be
estimated as follows
B) Productivity of Graders (Cont…)

 Average speed depends on the operator skill, machine

characteristics, and job condition. Typical grader speeds for

various types of operations are given in Table 2 – 7.
Example 4.7
A 25 km gravel load requires reshaping and leveling. It is
estimated that six passes of a motor grader will be required.
Based on the operator skill, machine characteristics, and job
condition, estimates indicated two passes at 7 km/hr, two passes
at 8 km/hr and two passes at 10 km/hr. If the job efficiency is
0.80, how many grader hours will be required for this job?
Solution
 4.3.2 EARTH COMPACTION EQUIPMENTS
4.3.2.1 General

Compactors are machines frequently

used to compact materials such as soil in
order to increase its density for
construction.
1. In addition, compactors are utilized in
landfill tasks.
2. Common varieties are plate tampers
(also known as rammers)
3. Vibratory plates, compactors (also
known as tamping foot rollers) &

64 4. Vibratory pad foot compactors.

 4.3.2 EARTH COMPACTION EQUIPMENTS
4.3.2.1 Smooth-wheel rollers

 These are most suitable for compacting

gravels, sand and such like materials.
Examples are Three wheeled or macadam
rollers and tandem rollers.
 Plain steel rollers
 Self-propelled type
 Weighing from 5 to 15 tonnes
 Used for ordinary rolling work where
deep compaction is not required
 These rollers may have one front and two
rear wheels.The rear wheels being usually
larger in diameter and the front one being
winder.
 Weight of rollers may be increased by
filling water or sand ballast in hollow
cylinder.
65
 These rollers are effective in compacting
 4.3.2 EARTH COMPACTION EQUIPMENTS
4.3.2.2 Sheep-foot rollers

 It consist steel cylindrical drum with projection

extending radial direction outward from surface

of cylinder & may be propelled or towed by
tractor. It is suitable for silty & clay sand,
medium and heavy clay. These gives best result
in compaction when the soil is clay or
predominantly cohesive and impervious.
 For compacting earth work in embankments and

canals (where compaction deep into the layer of

the earth is required)
 As roller moves over the surface, the feet
66
penetrate the soil to produce a kneading action
 4.3.2 EARTH COMPACTION EQUIPMENTS
4.3.2.3 Pneumatic-tyred rollers
• It gives kneading action as well as compression to the soil underneath. It is suitable for
moderately cohesive silty, clayey, gravelly and sandy soils. More suitable for
compacting fine-grained soil and well graded sands .
 Major advantages are the ability to control the

ground contact pressure by:

 Altering the weights of machines,

 Increasing the number of wheels,

 Increasing the tyre width

 Changing the contact area of the tyre by

altering the contact pressure.

 As roller moves over the surface, the feet penetrate

the soil to produce a kneading action and a

67 pressure to mix and compact the soil from bottom

to top layer.
 4.3.2 EARTH COMPACTION EQUIPMENTS
4.3.2.4 Rollers Production Estimating
 The compaction equipment used on a project must have a production
capability matched to that of the excavation, hauling, and spreading
equipment.
 Usually, excavation or hauling capability will set the expected
maximum production for the job.
 The production formula for the compactor is:

68
 Example 4.8

A self-propelled tamping foot compactor will be used

to compact a fill being constructed of clay material.
Field tests have shown that the required density can be
achieved with four passes of the roller operating at an
average speed of 1.5 mph. The compacted lift will
have a thickness of 5in. The compacting width of this
machine is 7ft. One bcy equals 0.83 compacted cubic
yards. The scraper production estimated for the project
is 510bcy per hour. How many rollers will be required
to maintain this production?

69
 4.3.3 HAULING EQUIPMENTS
4.3.3.0 General
 The equipment used for transportation of

material are known as hauling equipment or

simply haulers.It transports the earth,
aggregate, rock, ore, coal and other
materials.
 Road vehicles used for haulage on
construction work are two types.
 On Highway Vehicle-Design to be used on

Public Highways
 Off Highway Vehicle-Designed to be used

construction sites & designed and

manufactured to preclude there use on their
70
use on public roads and they may or may not
 4.3.3 HAULING EQUIPMENTS

4.3.3.1 Truck
 They have high mobility, good speed

and adoptability. The truck capacity

varies from 0.4 Cum to 20 Cum &
speed vary from 10kmph to30 kmph.

71
 4.3.3 HAULING EQUIPMENTS
4.3.3.2 Dump Truck
 These are the trucks which are fitted with

automatic unloading devices. The loading is

normally done by loading shovels or loaders.
The trucks have capacity as high as 53 tones.
These trucks can be rear dump truck.
 These are heavy duty trucks with strongly

built body which is hinged on the truck

chassis at the rear end and one side
respectively, and can be fitted to the rear in
the case of rear dump and to the hinged side
in case of the side dump, through the action of
hydraulic jacks.
72  These trucks are suitable for use in hauling
 4.3.3 HAULING EQUIPMENTS
4.3.3.3 Dumper
 A dumper is a vehicle designed for carrying

bulk material, often on building sites.

Dumpers are distinguished from dump trucks
by configuration: a dumper is usually an open
4-wheeled vehicle with the load skip in front
of the driver, while a dump truck has its cab in
front of the load.
 The skip can tip to dump the load; this is

where the name "dumper" comes from. They

are normally diesel powered. A towing eye is
fitted for secondary use as a site tractor.
Modern dumpers have payloads of up to 10
73 tones and usually steer by articulating at the
 4.3.3 HAULING EQUIPMENTS
4.3.3.3 Tripper
 A truck or lorry the rear platform of

which can be raised at the front end to

enable the load to be discharged by
gravity also called tip truck.
 Tippers are suited for the rough and

tumble of mining & quarrying

operations, as well as for carrying bulk
loads in construction and infrastructure
industries. Complete maneuverability,
high performance and long-term
endurance are common to all trucks,
resulting in lower operating costs.
74
 4.3.3 HAULING EQUIPMENTS
4.3.3.3 Trailers
 A trailer is generally an unpowered

vehicle pulled by a powered vehicle.

 Commonly, the term trailer refers to

such vehicles used for transport of goods

and materials.

75
Productivity of Haulers

 The productivity of a hauler unit can be computed by using

Equation 4 – 3. However since hauling units involve travel of

excavated materials; computing the travel time is the most
important step in computing the productivity of the hauler.
 Estimating Equipment Travel Time

 In calculating the time required for a haul unit to make one

complete cycle, it is customary to break the cycle down

into fixed and variable components
Cycle time = Fixed time + Variable time Equation 4-
8
 Fixed time represents those components of cycle time other than

travel time. It includes spot time (moving the unit position to begin
loading), load time and dump time.
 Fixed time can usually be closely estimated for a particular type of

operation from manufacturers guide

 Variable time represents the travel time required for a unit to haul

material to the unloading site and return. And it depends on the

vehicle’s weight and power, the condition of the haul road, the
grades encountered, and the altitude above sea level.
 In this section methods of calculating a vehicle’s resistance to

movement, its maximum speed, and travel time will be discussed.

Resistance
 To determine the maximum speed of a vehicle in a specific situation,

it is necessary to determine the total resistance to movement of the

vehicle.
 The resistance that a vehicle encounters in traveling over a surface is

made up of two components, rolling resistance and grade resistance.

Estimating Travel Time
Estimating Travel Time (Cont…)

 A second method for estimating travel time over a section of

haul route is to use the travel time curves provided by some

manufacturers.
 Separate travel‐time curves are prepared for loaded (rated

payload) and empty conditions, as shown in Figures 2 ‐ 12

and 2 ‐ 13. As you see, travel time for a section of the haul
route may be read directly from the graph given section
length and effective grade
Estimating Travel Time (Cont…)
Estimating Travel Time (Cont…)
Determining the number of haul units needed
 In operation of construction equipments balancing the excavator

and hauler will yield an efficient operation. The components of

the hauler cycle time are fixed time (spot, load, maneuver, and
dump) and variable time (haul and return).
 The fixed times can be estimated by using tables and the
loading time can be calculated using Equation 2 – 16 and 2 ‐ 17
Determining the number of haul units needed (Cont…)

 The reason for using an excavator loading rate based on

100 % excavator efficiency in the above equation is that

excavators have been found to operate at or near 100 %
efficiency when actually loading.
 Thus the use of the 100 % efficiency loading rate is to

provide an adequate number of trucks so that the excavator

will not have to wait for a truck.
 Determining the number of haul units needed (Cont…)

 The number of trucks theoretically required to keep a loader or

excavator fully occupied and thus obtain the full production of

the loader or excavator may be calculated by the use of
Equation 2 – 18 and 2 ‐ 19.
 Example 4.9

87
88
Example 4-10
Estimate the productivity of a 631 D single engine two – axle tractor
scraper, whose travel time curves are shown in Figure 2 – 12 & 2 ‐ 13
and fixed cycle time shown Table2 ‐ 8, based on the following
information:
 Maximum Heaped Volume = 24 Lm3
 Maximum Pay Load = 34,020 kg
 Material Density = 1,898 kg/Bm3 or 1,571 kg/ Lm3 (Sandy Clay)
 Rolling resistance = 50 kg/t
 Job efficiency = 50 min/Hr
 Operating Conditions = Average
 Pusher Type = Single Pusher
 Use g = 10 m/s2
Haul Route:
• Section 1 – Level loading area
• Section 2 – Down a 4% grade ( L = 610 m)
• Section 3 – Level Dumping Area
• Section 4 – Up a 4% grade ( L = 610 m)
• Section 5 – Level turn around ( L = 183 m)
91
92
Important tables and charts

Table 2 ‐ 8: Scraper Fixed Time (min)

 Example (On how to determining Travel Time using performance
curve)

Using the performance Curve on Figure 4-2, determine the maximum

speed of the vehicle if its gross weight is 150,000lb (68,000kg), the
total resistance is 10% and the attitude de-rating factor is 25%

96
97
Average Speed Factor Table
Exercise

Solve problem 4.10 using average speed method and the

performance curve. (Refer Figure 4.2 and Table 4.3 above).
 4.3.4 HOISTING EQUIPMENTS
4.3.4.0 General
 Hoisting is lifting a weight from one location and
moving it to another location which is at a reasonable
distance.
 These equipments are used for lifting the loads,

holding them in suspension during transfer from one

place to other and placing them at designated location.
Big projects such as, construction of dams, industrial
buildings etc. require hoisting equipment.
 Hoisting equipment includes jacks, winches, chain

hoists and cranes. Crane is the only single machine

which, as a single piece, is capable of providing three-
dimensional movement of a weight.

101
 4.3.4 HOISTING EQUIPMENTS
4.3.4.1 Forklifts

 A forklift truck (also called a lift

truck, a fork truck, a forklift, or a

tow-motor) is a powered industrial
truck used to lift and transport
materials.
 Forklift trucks are available in many

variations and load capacities. In a

typical warehouse setting most forklifts
used have load capacities between 1 to
5 tons. Larger machines, up to 50 tons
lift capacity are used for lifting heavier

102
loads.
 4.3.4 HOISTING EQUIPMENTS
4.3.4.2 Hoist
 A hoist is a device used for lifting or

lowering a load by means of a drum or lift-

wheel around which rope or chain wraps. It
may be manually operated, electrically or
pneumatically driven and may use chain,
fiber or wire rope as its lifting medium. The
load is attached to the hoist by means of a
lifting hook
 Also known as a Man-Lift, Buck hoist,

temporary elevator, builder hoist, passenger

hoist or construction elevator, this type of
hoist is commonly used on large scale
103
construction projects, such as high-rise
 4.3.4 HOISTING EQUIPMENTS
4.3.4.3 Crane
 A crane is a type of machine, generally

equipped with a hoist, wire ropes or chains,

and sheaves, that can be used both to lift and
lower materials and to move them
horizontally. It is mainly used for lifting
heavy things and transporting them to other
places.
 It uses one or more simple machines to create

mechanical advantage and thus move loads

beyond the normal capability of a man.
Cranes are commonly employed, in the

104 construction industry for the movement of

 4.3.4 HOISTING EQUIPMENTS
4.3.4.3 Crane

Factors affecting the selection of cranes

are

1. Building Design
 Building Height

 Project Duration

2. Capability
 Power Supply

 Load lifting frequency

 Operators Visibility

3. Safety
105  Initial Planning and Engineering
 4.3.4 HOISTING EQUIPMENTS
4.3.4.2 Mobile Crane
 These cranes are mounted on mobile units
which is either crawler type or wheel type
 Truck cranes have high mobility while the
crawler mounted cranes move slowly.
 Crawler mounted cranes are capable of moving
on rough terrain.
 Adequate for all types of structures (up to 107
m)
 Used for shorter projects duration (less than 4
months).
 Not considered to be very safe due to lack of
safety devices or limited switches to prevent
overloading.
 Can operate in muddy terrain but requires good
ground conditions.
 Needs adequate operating clearance
106
 4.3.4 HOISTING EQUIPMENTS
4.3.4.3 Overhead or Gantry Crane
 large service area,
 freedom from floor obstructions
 and three-way mobility,
 Widely used in erection, foundry, steel
plants, storage yards and different types of
industrial works.
 These type of cranes consist of two main
parts i.e., the bridge and the crab.
 The bridge consists of two main girders
fixed at their end to end and capable of
moving on gantry rails.
 The crab consists of the hoisting gear
mounted on a frame.
 The frame itself is mounted on another set
of wheels and capable of travelling across
the main girder.
107
 4.3.4 HOISTING EQUIPMENTS
4.3.4.3 Tower Crane
 Tower cranes are actually a derrick crane
mounted on a steel tower.
 Tower cranes are usually used for industrial
and residential high-rise buildings.
 These are commonly used for assembly of
industrial plants with steel structures.
 The main parts of tower crane are under
carriage, slewing platform, tower with
operator’s cabin and jibs.
 The tower has a truss structure welded from
steel bars and channels.
 Preferable for high-rise (over 107 m).
 Used for longer project duration.
 Considered to be very safe due to the
presence of limit switches.
 Can operate where ground conditions are
108 poor.
 4.3.5 CONVEYING EQUIPMENTS
4.3.5.0 General
 A conveyor system is a common piece of

mechanical handling equipment that moves

materials from one location to another.
Conveyors are especially useful in applications
involving the transportation of heavy or bulky
materials. Transporting material from one place
to another over a stationary structure.
 Caries material in continuous stream with its

distinct feature such as endless chain or belt.

 Conveying are mainly used in mining,
construction and in some of the industries. In
construction industry, conveyors are mainly
109
used for concreting purpose.
4.3.6 CONSTRUCTION PLANTS
4.3.6.0 General

Asphalt mixing plant

Aggregate production plant

Ready mix concrete plant

4.3.6 CONSTRUCTION PLANTS
4.3.6.1 Aggregate Production Plant

 The production of crushed-

stone/ aggregate involves:

 Drilling

 Blasting

 Loading

 Transporting

 Crushing

 Screening

 Product handling and

storage
Production line of stone crusher
TYPES OF CRUSHERS

 Crushers are classified according to the stage of crushing

which they accomplish, such as:

 Primary

 Secondary

 Tertiary
 A primary crusher receives the stone

directly from a quarry after blasting, and

produces the first reduction in size.
 The output of the primary crusher is then

fed to a secondary and tertiary crusher,

which further reduces the stone size.
 Crushers are also classified by their

method of mechanically transmitted

fracturing energy to the rock.
 Jaw, gyratory, and roll crushers work

by applying compressive force.

 Impact crushers such as single rotor

and hammer mill apply high-speed

impact force to accomplish fracturing
JAW CRUSHERS

 Jaw crushers operate by

allowing stone to flow into
the space between two jaws,
one of which is stationary
while the other is movable .
Gyratory crushers

 Gyratory crushers provide

continuous crushing action
and are used for both primary
and secondary crushing of
hard, tough, abrasive rock.
ROLL CRUSHERS

 Roll crushers are used for

producing additional reductions in
the sizes of stone after the output of
a quarry has been subjected to one
or more stages of prior crushing.
 A roll crusher consists of a heavy

cast iron frame equipped with

either one or more hard-steel rolls,
each mounted on a separate
horizontal shaft.
SCREENING AGGREGATE
 Screening of crushed stone is necessary in

order to separate the aggregate by size

ranges.
 Most specifications covering the use of

aggregate stipulate that the different sizes

shall be combined to produce a blend
having a given size distribution.
HANDLING CRASHEDSTONE AGGREGATE

 After stone is crushed and screened to

provide the desired size ranges, it is

necessary to handle the stone carefully or
the large and small particles may
separate, thereby destroying the blend in
sizes which is essential to meeting
graduation requirements.
 If aggregate is permitted to flow freely

off the end of a belt conveyor, especially

at some height above the storage pile, the
material will be segregated by sizes.
4.3.6 CONSTRUCTION PLANTS
4.3.6.2 Asphalt Production Plant
4.3.6 CONSTRUCTION PLANTS
4.3.6.2 Asphalt Production Plant
4.3.6 CONSTRUCTION PLANTS
4.3.6.2 Asphalt Production Plant
4.3.6 CONSTRUCTION PLANTS
4.3.6.2 Asphalt Production Plant

Cold Feed Systems

 Cold feed bins provide
aggregate surge and a uniform
flow of properly sized material
for mixing. The individual bins
can be fed from sized aggregate
stockpiles by front‐end loader,
clamshell, or conveyor
4.3.6 CONSTRUCTION PLANTS
4.3.6.2 Asphalt Production Plant

Drum Dryer

 The purposes of a drum dryer are to heat and dry the

aggregates of the mix.

Hot Screening
 This enables gradation control of four aggregate sizes into

four different hot bins

Hot Bins
 The aggregates from the hot screens are stored in the hot bins

until the plant is ready to make a batch of asphalt concrete.

4.3.6 CONSTRUCTION PLANTS
4.3.6.2 Asphalt Production Plant

Weight Hopper
 Aggregate from the hot bins is dropped into a weight hopper

situated below the bins and above the pugmill. The weight
hopper is charged one hot bin at a time to control the gradation
of the blended aggregate. The aggregates are weighed
cumulatively in the hopper. After charging, the weight hopper
gates are opened to discharge the aggregate into the pugmill.
4.3.6 CONSTRUCTION PLANTS
4.3.6.2 Asphalt Production Plant

Asphalt‐Handling System
 The asphalt cement is stored on site in a heated tank. The asphalt is

pumped to the weight tank, ready for discharge into the pugmill.
After the aggregates are added to the pugmill, the asphalt cement is
pumped through spray bars into the pugmill to coat the aggregates.

Pugmill Mixing
 Most plants use a twin shaft pugmill for mixing the batch. To

achieve uniform mixing, a pugmill’s live zone should be

completely filled with mix
Material transfer device
 A material transfer device can receive

multiple truckloads of asphalt concrete,

remix the asphalt concrete, and deliver it
to the paver hopper
Asphalt distributor
 When applying an asphalt prime, tack, or Asphalt distributor
seal coat, a specially designed distributor
truck is utilized

Asphalt paver
 This equipment that is used to pave the

asphalt on the road

Asphalt Paver
4.3.6 CONSTRUCTION PLANTS
4.3.6.3 Concrete Production Plant and Concreting Equipments

 Concrete consists of cement, water, and aggregate that are

mixed together, placed, consolidated, and allowed to solidify

and harden.
 Concrete batching plant consists the equipments used for
batching, mixing and placing,
 Batch control (controls the proportion of ingredients )

The ingredients are introduced into a concrete mixer and

mixed for a suitable period of time until all the ingredients are
adequately blended together
4.3.6 CONSTRUCTION PLANTS
4.3.6.3 Concrete Production Plant and Concreting Equipments

 Ready-mix concrete is a type of concrete that is manufactured

in a factory or batching plant, according to a set recipe, and then

delivered to a work site, by truck mounted transit mixers . This
results in a precise mixture, allowing specialty concrete
mixtures to be developed and implemented on construction
sites. The first ready-mix factory was built in the 1930s, but the
industry did not begin to expand significantly until the 1960s,
and it has continued to grow since then.
4.3.6 CONSTRUCTION PLANTS
4.3.6.3 Concrete Production Plant and Concreting Equipments

 Ready-mix concrete is preferred over on-site concrete mixing

because of the precision of the mixture and reduced work site

confusion. However, using a pre-determined concrete mixture
reduces flexibility, both in the supply chain and in the actual
components of the concrete.
 Ready Mixed Concrete is also referred as the customized

concrete products for commercial purpose. the Ready-mix

Concrete Company offer different concrete according to user's
mix design or industrial standard.
4.3.6 CONSTRUCTION PLANTS
4.3.6.3 Concrete Production Plant and Concreting Equipments

 Ready Mixed Concrete, or RMC as it is popularly called, refers

to concrete that is specifically manufactured for delivery to the

customer's construction site in a freshly mixed and plastic or
unhardened state.
 Concrete itself is a mixture of Portland cement, water and

aggregates comprising sand and gravel or crushed stone.

 In traditional work sites, each of these materials is procured

separately and mixed in specified proportions at site to make

concrete.
4.3.6 CONSTRUCTION PLANTS
4.3.6.3 Concrete Production Plant and Concreting Equipments

 Ready Mixed Concrete is bought and sold by volume -

usually expressed in cubic meters. RMC can be custom-

made to suit different applications.
 Ready Mixed Concrete is manufactured under computer-

controlled operations and transported and placed at site

using sophisticated equipment and methods. RMC assures
its customers numerous benefits.
133
4.3.6 CONSTRUCTION PLANTS
4.3.6.3 Concrete Production Plant and Concreting Equipments
4.3.6 CONSTRUCTION PLANTS
4.3.6.3 Concrete Production Plant and Concreting Equipments

Mixing

 There are two types of concrete‐

mixing operations in use:

(1) transit mixing and
Central – mixed concrete plant
(2) central mixing

Transit – mix truck

Equipment for transporting (placing) concrete
Placing of concrete
Once the concrete arrives at the project
Concrete buggy
site, it must be moved to its final position
without segregation and before it has
achieved an initial set.

Concrete pump
(through pipe)

Chute
Bucket
(Concrete (Large & massive
transported to lower construction. Handled by
level) crane) Wheelbarrow
Transporting concrete with concrete pumps
Transporting concrete with chutes
Transporting concrete with various means
 Reading Assignment

Read about Pile-driving

equipment

142
 Session II
O5 Construction Equipments
Maintenance Management
The Management of
Construction Equipment The Buy, Lease, or Rent Decision

Planning and scheduling construction

equipment (Reading Assignment-
Read the Planning and Scheduling
Basics from chapter 7 and 8 of the
book ¨Construction Equipment for
Engineers, Estimators, and Owners )

143
 5.1 CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT MAINTENANCE

 Construction equipment maintenance programs generally

consist of three major components:

 preventive maintenance,

 routine maintenance,

 and major repairs.

 The first two programs occur as scheduled under the

owners’ control whereas major repairs occur randomly and

usually at times when they seem to create the most distress
situation to the project.
144
 5.1.1 NEED FOR A MAINTENANCE PROGRAM

 Many factors affect the productivity of a machine. Weather,

operator efficiency, and operating site conditions all have

an impact and are often not possible for the project
manager to control.
 However, the one truly controllable factor is machine

availability. For this reason, equipment availability

management, which is the primary goal of equipment
maintenance, must be aggressively pursued based on a

145 detailed maintenance program developed by the project

 5.1.2 TYPES OF MAINTENANCE PROGRAMS

 For purposes of this discussion, two types of equipment maintenance

programs will be considered: unscheduled maintenance and planned or

preventive maintenance.
 Unscheduled maintenance is performed to get the construction equipment

that breaks down during the scheduled shift back to its working condition.
The aim of this type of maintenance is to minimize equipment downtime
after failure.
 The alternative to constantly reacting to unpredictable equipment failure is to

reduce them by implementing a sound preventive maintenance program on

the job site. The main objective of preventive maintenance is to minimize
unplanned equipment failure by devoting a regular period of time to
inspecting the equipment and ensuring that minor problems are fixed before
146
they can become major failures.
 5.1.3 PREVENTIVE AND PREDICTIVE MAINTENANCE
MANAGEMENT

 Various maintenance tasks have to be performed on each piece

of equipment at various intervals.

 The maintenance checklist for each piece of equipment is

typically found in the manufacturer’s service manual for each

piece of equipment. Thus, it is possible to consolidate these for
the entire fleet and coordinate the fleet’s master maintenance
schedule.
 Doing this not only helps scheduling the maintenance resources

assigned to the fleet but also assists in developing the

147
intermediate and long-term budgets.
 5.1.3.1 PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE

Three possible maintenance strategies:

 First breakdown approach: The equipment is never pulled out of

production for preventive maintenance unless it breaks down

 No alternative approach: The equipment is pulled out of production

for preventive maintenance in accordance with its manufacturer’s

recommended schedule. Production is incrementally sacrificed to

maximize equipment availability throughout the project.

 Breakdown-dollar versus inspection-dollar approach: A rational

comparison of the cost of lost production against the cost of

maintenance inspection is made and the lower cost option is

148
selected utilizing a mathematical algorithm
 5.1.3.2 AVAILABILITY AND RELIABILITY

 The two major statistical measures of maintenance

program’s success are the availability and reliability of
each piece of construction equipment and are used as
inputs for maintenance

149
 5.1.3.2 AVAILABILITY AND RELIABILITY (Cont…)

 Availability: The equipment manager can use some simple statistical tools to

calculate the availability of the different types of equipment in the fleet for

purposes of scheduling maintenance and evaluating cost.

 These tools can also serve as performance control measures for equipment

assigned to specific jobs.

 Statistical availability is calculated using records for the following two

metrics for each piece of equipment on previous or current projects:

 Downtime: The period of time during which equipment cannot be

operated.

 Uptime: The period of time during which equipment can be

150
operated.
 5.1.3.2 AVAILABILITY AND RELIABILITY (Cont…)
 Reliability: Reliability is not a different term for availability. Availability

relates how the maintenance will be scheduled and in effect is a measure of

equipment time usage. Reliability on the other hand measures the interval of

time when the piece of equipment is failure-free.

 Thus, a highly reliable piece of equipment could have a low availability due

to a very aggressive preventive maintenance program that takes it out of use

more than it needs to be.

 Thus it furnishes quantitative information that can be used either for

maintenance scheduling or for predicting failures as a means for determining

the optimum size and composition of maintenance resources.

151
 5.1.4 MAINTENANCE PERFORMANCE CONTROL

 Construction projects require control systems to give their managers

real-time feedback on progress and costs. By the same token,

construction equipment maintenance performance must also be
evaluated to measure the effectiveness of the maintenance support
program. The strategy may include the following:
 Develop a cogent policy on maintenance evaluation

 Provide advance notification and training for maintenance personnel

 Schedule the evaluation

 Use the most appropriate evaluation technique

 Announce evaluation results

 Take appropriate action

 Announce the improvements since last evaluation

152
 Specify the date of the next evaluation
 5.2 THE BUY, LEASE, OR RENT DECISION
5.2.1 ACQUIRING HEAVY EQUIPMENT

 In the current construction marketplace, equipment manufacturers, used

equipment brokers, and rental companies provide a means for a user with
proper credentials and competence to acquire just about any heavy
construction machine available on a temporary or permanent basis.
 There are numerous options to consider when deciding on heavy

equipment acquisition and financing. Traditionally, the equipment

purchase process was complete when the con- tractor selected a specific
make and model of machine from a dealer. This acquisition process today
includes numerous financing options and scenarios that banks, finance
companies, leasing agencies, and manufacturers offer.
 All major heavy construction equipment manufacturers offer a number of

153 creative leasing, renting, and installment loan products.

 5.2 THE BUY, LEASE, OR RENT DECISION
5.2.1 ACQUIRING HEAVY EQUIPMENT

The primary consideration in the buy, lease, or rent

decision is the amount of risk the equipment user

wishes to assume.
This risk is typically associated with financial
considerations. The evaluation of this risk makes
equipment acquisition an important managerial concern.

154
 CONVENTIONAL FINANCING PURCHASE

 Most contractors are not able to own construction equipment

without debt and build equity in it over time. Most times,

financial constraints make outright cash purchase of
equipment impossible or impractical.
 Because of this conventional purchase financing provides

the contractor with the capital required to make the purchase

through loan arrangements secured by accounts receivable,
own equity in the equipment, and use the equipment to
collateralize the loan.
155
 LEASING

 Over the past several years there has been an increasing trend

toward leasing as a way to finance construction equipment.

 In its simplest form, an equipment lease is simply a rental

agreement. Rent is paid for the equipment during the rental

period. Once the agreement is over, the equipment is returned to
the owner.
 Leasing is often considered more favorable when the equipment

is needed for more than 6 months. Most leases run from 18 to 24

months. For large expensive equipment, leases can run even
156
more
 RENTING

 Renting is gaining popularity as an option for contractors

when it comes to acquiring equipment.

 In CIT’s 2006 Construction Industry Forecast, respondents

as in the past, cited limited need for the equipment as the

primary reason for renting.
 The forecast highlights that as equipment fleets grow

older, more contractors are finding it necessary to use

rental equipment to back up the equipment they own.
157
 THE BUY, LEASE, OR RENT DECISION

 As stated before, the buy, lease, or rent decision is most

influenced by how long the equipment is needed. A short

period of utilization favors renting and a longer period
favors.
 The following table suggests the optimal approach for

equipment acquisition based on customer needs or criteria.

158
159
 THE BUY, LEASE, OR RENT DECISION (Cont…)

 Leasing or purchase. Along with the discussed financial analysis and

comparison there are many non quantitative areas to be considered

prior to the decision:

 Work volume

 Nature and types of construction projects

 Client requirements and expectations

 Reputation and company perception to potential clients

 Funding capabilities

 Long-term financial goals

 Relationship with equipment supplier

160
Thank You
 Class work

162