Topic 4: Digital control systems

•Introduction
•Continuous time control systems involve continuous
signals for all system variables.
•Regardless of whether the system is linear or
nonlinear, these variables are always present and
known at all times.
Digital control systems incorporate a computer
as a crucial component of the controller.

Various aspects of digital control systems can

be examined, such as control algorithms,
computer programming, analog-to-digital
conversion, and system performance.
In digital control systems, the control
algorithm is executed within a digital
computer.
Principles of operation
• In digital control systems, the computer receives measurements
of the controlled variable and often the reference input, and
generates an output using an algorithm.
• The output is usually converted to an analog signal using a D/A
converter and then amplified by a power amplifier to drive the
plant.
• The error signal is digitized using an A/D (analog to digital)
converter and fed to the computer.
• The controller output is also a discrete signal and is applied to
the plant after using a D/A (digital to analog) converter.
• Sampling, the process of converting continuous-time signals into
discrete numbers at regular intervals (T), is crucial in digital
control systems.
• The level of the sampling process is a fundamental property of
digital control systems due to the discrete operation of digital
computers.
Analog to Digital
converter (ADC)
• An ADC (Analog-to-Digital Converter) is an
electronic device that transforms an input
analog voltage or current into a digital
number proportional to its magnitude.
• With the advent of digital computers,
analog data or physical quantities need to
be converted into digital form for
computation.
• The conversion of an analog quantity into a
digital number involves three processes:
sampling, quantization, and binary
encoding.
Filtering:
• Prior to sampling, an analog input is
filtered using an anti-aliasing filter.
• The anti-aliasing filter is a low-pass filter
that restricts high frequencies in the
input signal to meet the requirements of
the sampling theorem.
• This filter removes frequencies that
surpass a specific limit set by the
sampling rate, preventing aliasing and
ensuring accurate digital conversion.
Sampling

The sample and hold circuit's

This circuit samples the analog
purpose is to take a stable
The initial step in converting a input at a rate determined by a
sample of the analog input while
signal to digital form involves clock signal, retaining the
A/D conversion occurs, typically
using a sample-and-hold circuit. sampled level on a capacitor
done using a switch and
until the next clock pulse.
capacitor.

The switch connects the

capacitor to the signal
Often, the sample and hold The more samples per second
conditioning circuit during each
circuit is integrated into the are taken, the more accurately
sample period, preserving the
same chip. they represent the analog signal.
measured voltage value until a
new sample is taken.
After sampling, the signal values are known only at discrete points in time
called sampling instants.

Adequately spaced sampling instants allow for interpolation between

points to obtain accurate immediate values.

The number of samples per second is known as the sampling frequency or

sampling rate, determined by the analog signal's highest frequency
component.

According to the sampling theorem, to avoid distortion, the input signal

must be sampled at a rate of at least 2 times its highest frequency
component (2fh samples/sec).
 Quantization
• Quantization is the process of approximating a continuous range of values with a
limited set of discrete symbols or integer values.
• To store or transmit sampled values through a digital system, they must be
represented numerically.
• This involves quantization, where each discrete sample value is rounded to the
nearest numerical value in a predefined set of digital words.
• Each sampled amplitude is converted into one of a finite number of possible
values or levels, typically in powers of 2 for binary conversion and precision
considerations.
• The quantized signal retains its value until the next sampling instant, but some
accuracy is lost due to rounding off, making exact reproduction of the original
signal impossible.
• The quality of coding depends on the number of quantization levels defined,
which determines the performance and precision of the digital representation.
 Binary encoding
• After quantization, the output is mapped into a binary
sequence.
• The number of bits needed for representation depends on
the number of quantization levels. For example, 8 levels
need 3 bits, 16 levels need 4 bits, and 256 levels need 8
bits.
• Generally, if there are 2^n levels, it requires n bits for
binary representation.
• To use more levels, more binary samples would need to be
fit into the time slot between successive signal samples,
increasing the data rate.
 Types of ADC
- There are several types of
analog to digital converter.
o Successive approximation
(Potentiometric) ADC
o Ramp type ADC
o Integrating Type ADC
o Dual –slope integrating
type
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Integrating (or dual slope) A/Ds

• These A/D converters are suitable for low-frequency

applications (up to a few hundred hertz) with high
accuracy and precision (e.g., 22-bit resolution).
• They are commonly used in thermocouple and RTD
(Resistance Temperature Detector) modules.
• Advantages include low cost and reduced noise and
mains pickup due to the integrating and dual-slope
nature of the A/D converter.
• The A/D conversion process involves charging a
capacitor with the input signal for a fixed time and
using a counter to measure the time it takes for the
capacitor to discharge, which is proportional to the
input voltage.
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 Successive approximation A/Ds
• Successive approximation A/D converters offer higher sampling rates,
reaching a few hundred kHz with 12-bit resolution, all at reasonable
cost.
• The conversion process resembles a binary search. It begins by
comparing the input with a voltage (generated by an internal D/A
converter) representing half of the full-scale range.
• If the input falls within the lower half, the first digit is set to zero, and
the A/D repeats the comparison with the lower half of the input
range. If it had been in the upper half, the first digit would be one.
• This process of dividing the remaining fraction of the input range in
half and comparing it to the input voltage continues until the desired
level of accuracy is achieved.
• It's crucial that the input signal remains constant throughout the
conversion process to ensure accuracy.
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 Digital to analog conversion
• Microcomputers are commonly used for industrial control,
producing digital output.
• In many applications, this digital output needs to be
converted to analog form for controlling devices like relays,
motors, or actuators.
• In communication systems, digital transmission is efficient,
but received digital signals must be converted back to
analog at the receiving end.
• DAC converters are also used as components in several ADC
converters.
• A digital-to-analog converter (DAC) transforms digital
values into analog quantities, generating an output current
or voltage proportional to the applied digital quantity
(binary word).
• It acts as a zero-order hold, maintaining its output at a
constant level until it receives the next discrete input.
 Various methods exist for constructing digital-to-
analog converters (DACs), including:

Binary
R-2R ladder Serial DAC
weighted
network converter
resistor DAC
 Binary weighted
Resistor DAC
1.Binary Weighted Resistor DAC comprises
four key components: n switches, one
for each bit in the input.
2.A weighted resistor ladder network
where resistance is inversely
proportional to the binary digit's
significance.
3.A reference voltage Vref.
4.A summing amplifier that combines the
current from the resistive network to
create an output proportional to the
digital input.
•The reference voltage source VR has negligible
internal impedance.
•The resistor values connected to the switches
ensure current flow proportional to the binary
weight of the respective input.
•The resistor in the Most Significant Bit (MSB)
position has a value of R, the next has 2R, and
so on, with the Least Significant Bit (LSB)
resistor having a value of (2^n-1)R.
•When all digital word bits are set to 1, the
output current is the full-scale output current, an
important design parameter.
•Conversely, with all switches open (ai
coefficients are zero), the output voltage
(current) is zero.
•The maximum output voltage Vo, dependent on
the feedback resistor Rf, relies on the
operational amplifier operating in negative
feedback mode, acting as a precise current-to-
voltage converter.
 The Data Acquisition System
• The Data Acquisition System (DAS) is an
electronic instrument or a set of interconnected
hardware dedicated to measuring and
quantizing analog signals for digital analysis.
• It translates the measured parameter from
analog to digital electrical signals.
• DAS can record and store digital data, or in
more advanced cases, perform analysis or
additional processing.
• Examples range from simple devices like
digital voltmeters (DVM) with decimal
readouts to complex systems incorporating
large-scale computers in their hardware.
 Elements of DAS
Analog Multiplexer:
Allows multiple sources to be measured by the same data acquisition
hardware.
Composed of switches connecting various analog signals to a common
measuring point.
Inputs are individually connected to the measuring point in a
predetermined sequence.
Number of channels in a multiplexer can vary from two to several
hundred.
Signal Conditioning:
Signals presented to DAS inputs may not be suitable for conversion and
require preconditioning.
Signal conditioning includes linear amplification, logarithmic
amplification, filtering, peak detection, or sample-and-hold.
Often, multiple functions are combined, such as amplification with
filtering or a low-level amplifier before sample-and-hold.
 A/D converters are
Notable techniques include
identified by the number of
Analog-to-Digital (A/D) Translates analog signals dual-slope integrating and
output digits (4 to 16 bits in
Converter: into encoded digital format. successive approximation
binary, 5 to 4 digits in
converters.
binary-coded decimal).

Can be a multiphased
crystal-controlled oscillator Some systems include time-
Provides master timing for
Digital Clock: or offer a variety of of-day and day-of-year
the data acquisition system.
multiplexer rates and clocks.
operation modes.

Users tag accumulated data Information is typically

with manual entries, noting provided in a "header"
Manual Data Entry: Digital Buffer:
data type, measurement preceding measurement
conditions, run number, etc. data.

Records discrete events, Designates out-of-tolerance

representing digital inputs conditions or other
triggered by events like situations that may
switch openings or closings. invalidate data collection.
Output Buffer:
Gathers multiplexer channel number, signal conditioner gain, A/D
converter data, manual data, clock information, and discrete events.
Combines data in the proper format for entry into the recording or
processing system.
Acts as a data collector and provides buffering and control for
interfacing with recording or processing devices.
Recording/Processing Device:
Various equipment types can serve as recording or processing devices,
such as paper tape punches, teleprinters, magnetic tape units, line
printers, cathode-ray tube displays, floppy disks, digital computers, and
special-purpose digital processors.
Automation in Data Acquisition System Components:
Components, except manual entry, have become more automated.
On-line programmable processing is possible, and a variety of storage
media is available.
Expansion in data acquisition is attributed to low-cost computer
hardware.
Software can become a costly burden.
Trend in Test Instrumentation:
• Latest trend involves
embedding a microprocessor in
equipment.
• Provides significant
programming power and
flexibility to the user.
Data Acquisition System Potential
Uses:
• Data Logging
• Signal Analysis
• Automated Factory Testing
• Process Control
 • Data logger is a data acquisition
system measuring analog inputs,
translating results to the digital
domain, and storing data for future
processing.
• Traditionally, scientists used analog
devices and manually recorded data at
Data critical points in experiments.
Logging • Data logger automates measurements,
recording at precise intervals with
high accuracy.
• Offers automated data analysis
through off-line computers due to
digital storage format.
• Portable data loggers enable
automation in remote locations.
Alarm System
• Used in industrial plants for monitoring and controlling processes
through control systems.
• Control systems include conventional desks or computer/PLC
systems with SCADA or Distributed Control Systems (DCS).
• Alarm system components: hardware (field signal sensors,
transmitters, etc.) and software.
• Functions include indicating abnormal conditions, notifying
operators for corrective action, and restoring normal conditions.
• Provides signals through audible sounds, visual indications,
blinking, text messages, etc.
• Alerts operators about problems needing attention, process
changes requiring action, unsafe conditions, hazardous situations,
and deviations from normal conditions.
 Approach to Alarm Types of Alarms: Alarm Priorities: Design Considerations:
Presentation:
• Real-Time • High Priority: Warns • Limiting alarm types
of dangerous for system simplicity
• Utilizes an Alarms: conditions that could and easy
associated Indicate lead to a major interpretation.
enunciator panel shutdown. • Higher priority alarms
current alarms should be louder,
with illuminated • Medium Priority:
pushbuttons next in the system. Requires quick action lower pitched, and
• Historical have a higher pulse
to the operator but won't cause a
frequency.
display. Alarms: Log shutdown. • Alarms classified as
• Each pushbutton • Low Priority: Dealt
real-time with when time
unacknowledged until
indicates the area operators
alarms, permits. acknowledge them via
of alarm origin
and triggers the providing a • Event Only: Provides the keyboard.
statistical or • Addressing the
corresponding historical technical information weakness of trivial
schematic on the record for without enunciator alarms to avoid
display when preventive sounds. irritation and
pressed. measures. confusion for the
operator.
 Human Machine
interface (HMI)
Human-Machine Interface (HMI):
• Apparatus presenting processed data to a
human operator for process monitoring and
control.
• In a digital control system, HMI processes
and displays data for human interaction.
• Includes controls for operator interaction
with the control system.
• Utilizes project screens animated with real-
time data from field control units and
servers.
• Authorized operators monitor device
activities, issue commands using standard
faceplate command windows, and group
displays.
Typical Hardware:

• One or more operator displays, potentially touch-

enabled.
• Industrial (or Mylar) keyboards with audible or
tactile feedback.
• Operator panels with highlighted keys for predefined
graphic displays.
• Printers for alarms and reports.
• Alarm buzzers or external sirens.
• Additional Option:
• Video copier as a possibly expensive but useful
addition for reproducing operator screens in color.
• Displays should appear within one second of the
operator pressing the appropriate display key(s)
 Display Organization:
• Displays should be organized logically for quick identification of
relevant information.
• Architecture involves a progressive decrease in scope and an
Operator increase in detail.
• Displays are structured into three layers: primary (overview),

displays secondary, and tertiary levels.

Graphic Screens:

and • Free Form Graphic Screens: Users create layouts and symbols,
offering complete flexibility.

graphics • Operating Group Displays: Standard symbols used to present data in

a standard format.
• Trend Displays: Show trends in analog values.
• Alarm Displays: Log current alarms in the system.
Importance of Overview Displays:
• Operators consult overview schematics ten times
more often than secondary and tertiary schematics.
• Correct design is crucial, and operator consultation is
essential for usefulness.
• Overview displays cover a large system area;
unnecessary details, like equipment outlines and flow
lines, should be eliminated.
Design Considerations for Secondary and Tertiary
Displays:
• Consulted less often, may require more information
than live updates.
• De-emphasize equipment outlines and text messages
using low-intensity colors.
• Use clear icons to indicate areas associated with
specific schematics or operations, aiding quick
identification by the operator.
END

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