FUNCTIONS: POLYNOMIALS,

REMAINDER THEOREM
A function f is a rule which relates or maps an
input onto just one output. For example, the
function f:x ⇨ 2𝑥 - 1. This read: the function f
such that (:) any input x is mapped onto (→) the
value 2x - 1. So if the input was 3, (i.e. 𝑥 = 3) the
output or image of 3 would- be f(3) 2 x 3 - 1 = 5.
As the values of x are chosen first, we call 𝑥 the
independent variable. Each value of x will have
just one image, the corresponding value of
y ( = f(𝑥)). y is called the dependent variable.
For certain functions, however. some values
of 𝑥 may have no image, as you will see in
Example 2 below. These are called
discontinuous functions. Other letters may be
used for functions, for example g(𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 3,
Example 1. If f(𝑥) = 2𝑥 ³ - 3𝑥 + 1. find the values
of f(0), f(-1), f(t), f(2𝑥).
Solution
Given f(𝑥) = 2𝑥 ³ - 3𝑥 + 1.
f(0) = 2 × 03 – 3 × 0 + 1 = 1 so the image of 0 for
this function is 1
f(-1 ) = 1 x (-1)3 – 3 x (-1) + 1 = 2
f(t) = 2t3 – 3t – 1
f(2x) = 2 x (2𝑥)3 – 3 (2𝑥) + 1 = 16𝑥 3 – 6𝑥 + 1
Example 2. If f(x) = , find (a) the image
of - 1 and (b) f(𝑥 - 1).
(c) What values of 𝑥 will have no images for this
function?
Solution
f(x) =
(a)The image of 𝑥 = -1 is f(-1);
f(-1) = = = 0
(b) f(x – 1) = =
=
(c) f(x)=
When x = -2, f(-2) = =
DISTINCTION BETWEEN A FUNCTION AND
AN EQUATION
Some important types of function:

Linear quadratic polynomial

function function function

Y=2–3 y = ² - – 10 y = 2³ - 3² + - 4

trigonometric logarithmic exponential

function function function.

y = sin o
y = log y=2
 EXERCISE

1. Find the values stated for these functions:

(a) f() = 3 – 1 : f(0), f(-1), f(1)
(b) f() = ² + + 1 : f(-1), f(0), f( + 1)
(c) g()= ² - – 2 : g(-1), g(-), g(0), g()
(d) f()= ( + 1)²: f(-1), f(0). f(3)
e) f(x) = : f(0), f(1), f( - 1)
 Exercise Cont.

2) Find the zeros of the functions:

(a) f() = - 1 (b) f() = ( + 1)²
(c) f() = ² - - 6
d) g() = (e) f() =
3) Given the function f() = What value of
has no image? Find the images of = -1..1.
What value of x has no image?
4) If f() = 3 + 2. what is the value of
whose image is 5?
5) Functions f and g are given by f() = ² - and g() =
2 - 3. Evaluate f(0), f(-1), g(0) and
g(-1). If f() + g() = 3, find .
6) If h() = a + b. find the values of a and b given
that h(2) = 4 and h(4) = 10.
7) If f() = find zero of f() and the values of which
have no images.
8) Given the function f() = ² - 3 - 2. express f(2a) -
f(a) in terms of a.
9) If f() = ² - + 1. find f(a), (b) and f(a + b). Is f(a +
b) = f(a) + f(b)?
10) f() = a + b + c where a, b and c are constant
numbers. If f(0) = 5. What is the value of c?
Given also that f(1) = 6 and f(-1) = 8, find the
values of a and b.
11) If f() = 22 - + 1, express h in its simplest form.
 POLYNOMIALS

A polynomial is the sum of separate terms of

positive powers of a variable with a constant term
(which may be zero).
For example, 4³-2²+ 7 - 5 is a cubic polynomial as
the highest power of is 3.
 Polynomials Cont

The terms are written in descending order of

the powers and -5 is the constant term. 4, 2
and 7 are the coefficients of the terms in .
The polynomial 1 - + is a polynomial of the
4th degree written in ascending order. Note
that the term in ² is missing (coefficient (0).
Written in descending order, the polynomial would
be 54 + 3 - + 1.
The general polynomial in , of the nth degree, can be
written as arx-n + an-1 n-1+ ... + a1x + a0 where an, an-1

an.... a1, are the coefficients and a0 is the constant

term. Any of these could be zero, except a n.

 ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF POLYNOMIALS

Example 3

Two polynomials are P₁ = 2³ - 3² + 5 – 7 and P₂ = 3 + 2 - + 1. Find (a) P1 +

P₂ (b) P₁ - P₂ (c) 2P1 – 3P2

Solution

(a)P₁ + P₂ = 2³ - 3² + 5 - 7 – (3 + ² - + 1)
= 2³ - 3² + 5 - 7 – 3 + ² + – 1 = 3 + 2² + 6 - 8
b) P₁ - P₂ = 2³-3² + 5 - 7 + ² - x + 1

= 3 - 4² + 6 - 8

b) 2P1 – 3P2
= 2(2³ - 3² + 5 – 7) -3(3 + ² - + 1)
= 3 - 9² + 13 - 17
 Exercise

1. Which of these are not polynomials?

a)22 – (b) 0.2 - (c) - (d) ( – 1) ( – 5) (e)
(f) (g) log( + 1)(h) 2x – 1
(i) (j)
2 Write the polynomial 2 - + 2 - 4³, in descending order.
3. Write the polynomial 4³ - ² - - 1, in ascending
order.
4. State (i) the coefficients of the terms and (ii) the
constant term for the polynomials:
(a) 1 + + ² - 2 (b) 3² - 2 (c) 5 - 3² + 2
5 If P₁ = ³-3² + - 2 and P2 = 2² + ² - + 1; find (a) P₁ + P2 (b)
P1 - P2 (c) 2P1 - P2

6. If P1 = 4 + 3 + 2 - + 2 and P2 = x² + 2x²- 5, find (a) P₁ + 2P2,

(b) 2P1 - P2, (c) P₁ - P2

7) Reduce each of the following to a polynomial:

(a) ( - 1) (b) ( - 2)( + 3) (c) ( + 2)( - 1)( - 2)

(d) 2( - 1)( + 2) -3( + 1)( - 2)

 MULTIPLICATION OF POLYNOMIALS

You will know how to write down the product of

two linear polynomials, e.g. (2 - 1) (3 + 4).
Each term in one bracket, multiplies each term in
the other bracket and the results are collected
together. A similar method is used to multiply
higher degree polynomials.
Example 4
Multiply 23 - ² + - 1 by 3 - 2.
Solution
23 - ² + - 1 × (3 - 2)
= 3(23 - ² + - 1 ) - 2(23 - ² + - 1)
= 63 - 3² + 3 - 3 - 44 - 23 - 2² + 2
= -44 - 83 - 5² + 5 – 3
Example 5
Multiply 2 - + 1 by - - 2
2 2

Solution
= 2(22 - + 1) - (22 - + 1) -2(22 - + 1).
= 24 - 3 + 2 - 23 + 2 – - 42 + 2 – 2
= 24 - 3 3 - 2 2 + - 2
Example 6
Expand (2 -1) (3 +2) ( +5)
Solution
(2 – 1) (3 + 2) ( + 5)
= (2 - 1) (3² + 17 + 10)
= 63 + 34² + 20 - 3² - 17 - 10
= 6 + 31² + 3 -10
3

Example 7
Find the coefficients of (a) ³, (b) 5 in the product
(2³ - 2 + + 1) (³ - 2 -3)
Solution
These are the only products producing terms in x³.
The result is - 3 and the coefficient required is - 3.
 DIVISION OF POLYNOMIALS

1. Divide ³ + 3² + 1 by ²- + 1
Solution
So ³ + 3² + 1 = (² - + 1) ( + 4) + 3–3

P = D Q + R

Note that in each case the degree of Q = degree of P - degree

of D and that the degree of R is one less than that of D.

The degree of a remainder is always one less than that of the

divisor.
 EXERCISE

1.Carry out the following divisions. Write each

result in the form P = D x Q + R
(a)(2 + + 2) ( – 1)
(b)(3 + 1) ( + 1)
(c)(22 + + 5) ( + 3)
 EXERCISE

(d) (2 - 5 + 1) ( – 2)(e) (2 - 4 - 7) ( + 3)
(f) (3 - 22 - 3 - 2) ( – 1)
(g) (22 + 2 – 3) (2 – 1)
(h) (3 - 2 + - 4) (2 - + 4)
(i) (43 - 2 + - 5) (2 + - 1)
(j) (33 - 42 - 1) (2 + 2 - 1)
2. A polynomial is divided by + 1. The quotient is 2 – 3 and
the remainder is 3, find the polynomial.
3. A polynomial P is divided by 2 – 1. The quotient is
2
+ – 1 and the remainder is -2. Find P.
4. A polynomial f() is divided by 2 + – 2 the quotient is

+ 1 and the remainder is 2 – 3. Find f().

 REMAINDER THEOREM
The Remainder Theorem is based on synthetic
division, which is the process of dividing a
polynomial by a polynomial and finding the
remainder. Suppose f() is divided by ( – a). Let the
quotient be Q() (a function of ) and let the remainder
be R (which will be a number as
– a is the first degree). Then this is a statement of
fact: it is not an equation, which is true for certain
values of . It is an identity. Which is true for all values
of .
Put = a.

Then, f(a) = (a – a) x Q(a) + R = 0 + R. Hence, R = f(a).

If f() is divided by p + q then f() = (p + q) x Q() + R.

Now put = - =0xQ+R

Hence, R =
 Examples

Example 1
f() = 3 - 32 + – 5. What are the remainders when f()
is divided by
a) – 1 b) + 2 c) 2 – 1 d) 3 + 2?
 Solution
f() = 3 - 32 + – 5
a) Divisor – 1. Then R = f(1) = 1 – 3 + 1 – 5 =
-6
b) Divisor + 2. Then R = f(-2) = -8 – 12 -2 -5 =
-27
c) Divisor 2 – 1. Then R = f() = - + – 5 =
-
d) Divisor 3 + 2. Then R = f(- ) = - - - – 5 = -
 EXERCISE

1.2 – 5 + 1 is divided by (a) – 2 (b) + 1

2.2 + + 1 is divided by (a) – 1 (b) + 3
3.2 – 5 is divided by (a) 2 – 1 (b) + 3
4.2 - 3 + 7 is divided by (a) 2 – 1 (b) – 5
 EXERCISE

5. 3 - 2 + + 1 is divided by (a) – 3 (b) 2 – 1

6. 3 + 3 – 6 is divided by (a) 3 – 1 (b) 2 + 3
7. 23 - 2 + + 1 is divided by (a) + 3 (b) 2 – 5
8. What is the remainder when n – 1 is divided by – 1?
9. If n is a positive even integer, what is the remainder when n -1 is divided by
+ 1? What would be the remainder if n was positive and odd?
10. Find the remainders when ( + 1) ( – 2) is divided by (a) – 1 (b) + 3
(c) 2 – 1 (d)
11. If 2 - + 1 is divided by – 2 and – 3, what are the remainders?

Hence, f()=( - 1)( 2 - - 6) = (- 1)(- 3)( + 2)

 SOLVING EQUATIONS

Example 1
Solve the equation 2 - 3 - 5 + 6 = 0.
3 2

Solution
23 - 32 - 5 + 6 = 0.
Let f() = 23 - 32 - 5 + 6. Now factorise f().
Try ( - 1). f(1)=2 – 3 – 5 + 6 = 0. So ( - 1) is a
factor.
The quotient is 2² - 6 = (2 + 3) ( - 2).
Hence f() = ( - 1) (2 + 3) ( - 2). The given equation is
f() = 0. When f() = 0, ( - 1) (2 + 3)( - 2) = 0.
Hence, the roots of the given equation are x = 1, -
or 2.
Example 2
+ 1 is a factor of a + 3 + 3² + b³ and the remainder when
this expression is divided
by + 2, is 20. (a) Find the values of a and b.
(b) With these values factorise the expression
completely.
(c) Hence solve the equation a + 3 + 3² + b³ = 0.
Solution
Let f(x) = a + 3 + 3² + b3.
(a) If + 1 is a factor of f(), then, f(-1) = 0.
⇒ f(-1)=a – 3 + 3 - b = 0
⇒ a = b …………………………..(i).
The remainder, when f() is divided by + 2, is f(-2) and
this equals 20
⇒ (-2)=a – 6 + 12 – 8b = 20
⇒ a - 8b = 14…………………….. (ii).
Solving (i) and (ii) simultaneously, we obtain a = b = -2.
Hence f() = 23 + 3² + 3 - 2.
(b) Now divide f() by + 1.
The quotient is - 2² + 5 - 2.
Hence f() = ( + 1) (-2² + 5x - 2) = ( + 1) (2 + 1) (2 - ).
(c) The equation a + 3 + 3² + b³ = 0 means that f() = ( +
1) (2 + 1) (2) = 0.
Hence the roots of the equation are = -1. - or 2.
 SKETCHING POLYNOMIALS
To sketch the curve of a polynomial function:

1. Find the zeros of the function: Set f(x) =0 and solve for x. These
are the x-coordinates where the curve intersects the x-axis.

2. Determine the behaviour of the function as x approaches

positive or negative infinity: This gives you the end behaviour of
the function and tells you in which direction the arms of the
graph are heading.
 SKETCHING POLYNOMIALS

3. Find the y-intercept: This is the point where the curve

intersects the y-axis, found by evaluating f(0)

4. Calculate the function’s derivative: The derivative, f′

(x), can help you find the function’s critical points, which
are the peaks and valleys of the function. Set f′(x)=0 and
solve for x to find these points.
 SKETCHING POLYNOMIALS
5. Plot the points: Plot the zeros, y-intercept, and critical points on a
graph.

6. Draw the curve: Sketch the curve of the function, making sure it passes
through the plotted points and follows the end behaviour of the function.

It's important to note the distinction between sketching and drawing a

graph: a sketch emphasizes key details sufficient to convey the curve's
overall characteristics, while drawing a graph requires a table of values for
accuracy and precise readings.
 EXAMPLES

1. Sketch the curve y = 22 - - 3.

Solution
Take f() = 2² - - 3 = (2 - 3)( + 1).
Hence the zeros of f() are . = and = -1. The curve will
cross the x-axis at these Points.
 EXAMPLES

Also f(0)=3. So the curve cuts the y-axis where x =

3. This gives us enough information to make a
sketch (Fig. below).
y = a + b + c. either in the form.
2. Sketch the curve y = 3 + 2 - 2
Solution
Let f() = ² + ² - 2

(² + - 2) = ( + 2) ( -1).

The zeros of f() are = 0, -2 and 1. The curve crosses the x axis
where has these values. We take a few more points between
these values, to locate the curve.
 = -3: f(-3) = -27 + 9 + 6 = -12
This gives the point A (-3, -12).
= -1: f(-1) 2. Point B (-1, 2).
= 0: f(0) = 0. The curve passes through the origin.
= f() =
We can now sketch the curve as shown
This is the typical shape of a cubic curve y = a³ + b²
+ c + d, which will
 EXERCISE

Sketch the curves given by:

1.y = 2 - – 2 2. y = 1 - 2 3. y = 2 + 3 – 10

4. y = 2 + - 2 5. y = 3 + 1 6. y = 3 - 22 - + 2

7. y = 3 - 22 - – 6 8. y = 3 - 52 - + 2
 IDENTITIES
Two polynomials of the same degree are identical
if corresponding coefficients are equal. For
example, if the polynomials 3 - 22 - – 5. and a³ + b2
+ c + d are identical, then a = 3, b = -2, c = 1
and d = -5. When two polynomials f() and g() of
the same degree are identical, then for all values
of , f() = g().
 Examples

1. If the polynomial 22 - 4 + 3 can be expressed in

the form
a( - 1)( - 2) + b( -1 ) + c( - 2). find the values of a,
b and c.
 Examples

Solution

To express the polynomial in the form a(x−1)(x−2)+b(x−1)+c(x−2), we can

equate the coefficients of the like terms on both sides.

Expanding the right side, we get:

a( - 1)( - 2) + b( - 1) + c( - 2) = a(² - 3 + 2)+ b – b + c -2c

= a² + (- 3a + b + c) + 2a - b -2c
 Examples

Then the polynomials

22 - 4 + 3 and a² + (- 3a + b + c) + 2a – b -2c are identical.

Equating the coefficients, we get:

Coefficient of : a=2

Coefficient of x : −3a+b+c=−4

Constant term: 2a−b−2c=3

 Examples

Substituting a =2 into the last two equations, we get:

4 = -6 + b + c and 3 = 4 – b – 2c

which gives b + c = 2 and b + c = 1.

Solving these two equations, we find that b = 3 and c = -1. So

a = 2, b = 3. c = -1.
2. Find constants a, b, c such that .

Solution

.
 Examples

Equating the coefficient of :

Equating the coefficient of : ………………(1)

Equating the term independent of x:

…………..(2)
 Examples

Substituting in (1): ⇒

Similarly, substituting (2) gives

Hence, ,
 Exercise

1. For the function f() = 22 - - 2, find the values of f(-2),

f(-1), f(0) and f(2).

2.) If f() = . Find f(-2), f(0), f(1) and f(2) What value of x has no
image for this function?

3.) If f() = x²-2x. find the values of for which f() = 15.
 Exercise

4. Given that f() = a2 + bx -1 and f(-1) = 4. f(2) = 7. find the values of

a and b.

5.) If f() = ² - - 1. find in its simplest form f( + 1) f( - 1).

6.) If f() = ,find the value of k other than k = 1, such that f(k) = f(1).
 Exercise

7.) If P = 3 - ² + 3 - 4 and Q = x - 3, find(a) 3P-Q2 (b) PQ (c)

8.) State the coefficients of ² and ³ in the product (3 - 2² + - 1)( ² + + 1).

9) (a) Multiply ² + a - 3 by ² + + b, arranging your answer in descending powers of

descending powers of .

(b) If the coefficients of ³ and in the product are each equal to -1. Find the values of a and b.

(c) With these values of a and b. what is the coefficient of ²?

 Exercise

10.) Divide: (a) ² - - 3 by - 1 (b) 3 + 2² - - 5 by +4

(c) 23 - 32 + - 4 by 2 - 3

11.) Factorise: (a) ³ - 3 - 2 (b) ³ + 6² + 11 + 6 (c) ³ +

² - 6 + 4 (d) 3 - ² - 8 + 12
 Exercise
12.) If +1 and - 2 are factors of ² + a2 - 5 + b, find the values of a and b. With these values, factorise
the expression completely end solve the equation 3 + a²- 5 + b = 0.

13.) For what values of a and b will the polynomial a³ - ² + b + 3, have e remainder of 4 when divided
by - 1 and a remainder of 9 when divided by - 2

14 If – 2 is a factor of 3 - 42 + p + 16, find p and thus find the other factors. Hence solve the equation
3
- 42 + p + 16 = 0.

15.) If 23 + b + 6 has factors (2- 1) and ( + 2), find the values of a and b. Hence, state the third linear
factor of the expression.
 Exercise

16.) If the polynomials 3 + 2 - 4 + 5 and ³ + 3 - 7, have the same

remainder when they are divided by - a, find the possible values
of a

17.) Solve the equations: (a) ³- 6² + 11 – 6 = 0 (b) ³ + 9² + 26 + 24

=0

(c) 3 - 52 = 3 - 3
 Exercise

18.) + 2 is a factor of the polynomial a³ - 2² + b - 18. When this polynomial is

divided by + 1 the remainder is 8.

(a) Find the values of a and b.

(b) With these values find the remaining factors of the polynomial.

(c) Hence solve the equation a³ - 2² + b - 18.

(d) Sketch the graph of the polynomial using the values of a and b you have found.
 Exercise

19.) Sketch the curves: (a) y = 4² (b) y = ² - 5

(c) y = ³ - 3² + 2
(d) y = - ³ + 2² + - 2
 Exercise

20.) Find the values of the letter coefficients in the

following, if the polynomials are identical in each case:
(a) 2³ - 3² + a - 1 = b³ + c² + d
(b) ³ - ² + – 4 = a( – 1) ( – 2) + b( – 1) + c