Electronics

Digital Electronics
 Introduction
Unlike a linear, or analogue circuit which contains signals that are
constantly changing from one value to another, such as amplitude
or frequency, digital circuits process signals that contain just two
voltage levels or states, labelled logic "0" and logic "1".

The voltages used to represent a digital circuit are called "logic

levels". Generally, a logic "1" represents a higher voltage, which is
referred to as a HIGH and a logic "0" is referred to as a LOW
 Analogue Circuits
Electronic circuits can be divided into two main categories.
Analogue Circuits - Analogue or Linear circuits amplify or respond to
continuously varying voltage levels over a period of time.

The output from the potentiometer varies as the wiper terminal is rotated producing
an infinite number of voltage points between 0 volts and V max. As the voltage
output varies either slowly or rapidly there is no sudden change between two
voltage levels giving a continuous output voltage.
Examples of analogue signals include temperature, pressure, liquid
levels and light intensity
 Digital Circuits
Digital Circuits - Digital circuits produce or respond too two distinct
voltage levels representing either a Logic level "1" or a Logic level
"0".

As the wheel rotates, the optoswitch will generate an output that changes quickly
beetween two discrete voltage levels. For example, 5V volts to 0 volt but NOT
2.5V, 3.1V or 4.6V.
Then the major difference between an analogue signal or quantity
and a digital quantity is that an "Analogue" quantity is
continuously changing over time while a "Digital" quantity has
discrete (step by step) values. LOW to HIGH or HIGH to LOW
 Voltage Levels
In all electronic circuits, only two logic levels are allowed and these levels are
referred to as "logic 1 or logic 0", "high or low", "true or false".
Most logic systems use positive logic, in which a logic "0" is
represented by zero volts and a logic "1" is represented by a higher
voltage, such as +5 volts .

In standard TTL (transistor-transistor-logic) IC's there is a defined range of input

and output voltage limits for defining what is a logic "1" value and what is a
logic "0" value.
 Noise
Noise is the name given to a random and unwanted voltage that is
induced into electronic circuits by external interference, such as
from nearby switches, power supply fluctuations or from wires and
other conductors that pick-up stray electromagnetic radiation.

However, between these defined HIGH and LOW values lies what is generally
called a "no-man's land" (the blue area's above) and if we apply a signal voltage
of a value within this no-man's land area we do not know whether the logic gate
will respond to it as a level "0" or as a level "1", and the output will become
unpredictable.
 Decimal to Binary Conversion
The Decimal or "denary" counting system uses the Base of
10 numbering system where each digit in a number takes on one of
ten possible values from 0 to 9, eg 213 (Two Hundred and
Thirteen).
In a decimal system each digit has a value ten times greater than its
previous number and this decimal numbering system.
In the decimal or denary system, the columns have values of units,
tens, hundreds etc as we move from right to left and
mathematically these values are written as 10 0, 101, 102, 103 etc
(6×103) + (1×102) + (6×101) + (3×100) = 6163
 Decimal to Binary Conversion
Unlike the decimal numbering system which uses the base of 10,
digital logic uses just two values or states, a logic level "1" or a
logic level "0", so each "0" and "1" is considered to be a single
digit in a Base of 2 orBinary numbering system.
In the binary numbering system, each digit has a value twice that of
the previous digit but can only have a value of either "1" or "0“
28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20
Decimal Digit Value 256 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
Binary Digit Value 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1

Then, the binary array of digits 1011001012 is equivalent to 35710 in

decimal or denary.
 Decimal to Binary Conversion
Another method of converting Decimal to Binary number equivalents
is to write down the decimal number and to continually divide by 2
(two) to give a result and a remainder of either a "1" or a "0" until
the final result equals zero.
Convert 83 to binary
83:2=41 remainder 1 LSB
41:2=20 remainder 1
20:2=10 remainder 0
10:2=5 remainder 0
5:2=2 reaminder 1
2:2=1 remainder 0
1:2=0 remainder 1 MSB
8310=10100112
 Binary Numbers
Binary numbers can be added together and subtracted just like
decimal numbers with the result being combined into one of
several size ranges depending upon the number of bits being used.
The classification of individual bits into larger groups are
generally referred to by the following more common names
Number of Binary
Common Name
Digits (bits)
1 Bit
4 Nibble
8 Byte
16 Word
32 Double Word
64 Quad Word
 Binary Numbers
As micro-controller or microprocessor systems become increasingly
larger, the individual binary digits (bits) are now grouped together
into 8´s to form a single BYTE with most computer hardware such
as hard drives and memory modules commonly indicate their size
in Megabytes or even Gigabytes.
Number of Bytes Common Name
1,024 (210) kilobyte (kb)
1,048,576 (220) Megabyte (Mb)
1,073,741,824 (230) Gigabyte (Gb)
a very long
Terabyte (Tb)
number! (240)
 Binary based other number systems
The one main disadvantage of Binary Numbers is that the binary equivalent of a
large decimal number can be quite long, which makes it difficult to both read or
write without producing errors especially when working with 16 or 32-bit
numbers. One common way of overcoming this problem is to arrange the binary
numbers into groups

Base, b Byte (8-bits) Word (16-bits)

Decimal 0 to 25510 0 to 65,53510

0000 0000 0000 0000 0000 0000

Binary to to
1111 11112 1111 1111 1111 11112

Hexadecimal 00 to FF16 0000 to FFFF16

Octal 000 to 3778 000 000 to 177 7778

the memory of a computer would use hexadecimal numbers while the keyboard
uses decimal numbers
 Hexadecimal (16)
the Hexadecimal numbering system uses only four digits to express a
single 16-bit word length, and as a result it is the most commonly
used Binary Numbering System for electronic and micro-
electronic system
Decimal 4-bit Binary Hexadecimal Decimal 4-bit Binary Hexadecimal
0 0000 0 9 1001 9
1 0001 1 10 1010 A
2 0010 2 11 1011 B
3 0011 3 12 1100 C
4 0100 4 13 1101 D
5 0101 5 14 1110 E
6 0110 6 15 1111 F
7 0111 7 16 0001 0000 10 (1+0)
8 1000 8 17 0001 0001 11 (1+1)
Continuing upwards in groups of four
 Using Hexadecimal Numbers
Counting:
0...to...9, A,B,C,D,E,F, 10...to...19, 1A, 1B, 1C, 1D, 1E, 1F, 20, 21

Writing in binary form:

20F16=(0010 0000 1111)2

Conversions
3A16 = (0011
1010)2=0*128+0*64+1*32+1*16+1*8+0*4+1*2+0*1=58
3A16 =3*16+10*1=58
20F16=2*256+0*16+15=527
 Boolean (or Switching) Algebra
Besides basic arithemtical operations, the binary numbers, which are
inherently represents true or false logic states, are also used in
logical operations.
Boolean (or Switching) Algebra deals mainly with the theory that
both logic and set operations are either "TRUE" or "FALSE" but
not both at the same time.
For example, A + A = A and not 2A as it would be in normal algebra.
Boolean algebra is a simple and effective way of representing the
switching action of standard Logic Gates and the basic logic
statements.
 The logic AND Function
The Logic AND Function function states that two or more events
must occur together and at the same time for an output action to
occur. But the order at which they occur is unimportant as it does
not affect the final result
 The logic AND Function

Switch Switch
Output Description
A B
0 0 0 A and B are both open, lamp OFF
A is open and B is closed, lamp
0 1 0
OFF
A is closed and B is open, lamp
1 0 0
OFF
A is closed and B is closed, lamp
1 1 1
ON
Boolean Expression
 The logic AND Gate
TTL Logic Circuit TTL Logic Types
74LS08 Quad 2-input
74LS11 Triple 3-input
74LS21 Dual 4-input

CMOS Logic Types

CD4081 Quad 2-input
CD4073 Triple 3-input
CD4082 Dual 4-input
 The Logic OR Function
The Logic OR Function function states that an output action will
occur or become TRUE if either one "OR" more events are TRUE,
but the order at which they occur is unimportant as it does not
affect the final result.
 The Logic OR Function

Switch Switch
Output Description
A B
0 0 0 A is open and B is open, lamp OFF
0 1 1 A is open and B is closed, lamp ON
1 0 1 A is closed and B is open, lamp ON
A is closed and B is closed, lamp
1 1 1
ON
Boolean Expression
A+B
(A OR B)
 The logic OR Gate
TTL Logic Circuit TTL Logic Types
74LS32 Quad 2-input

CMOS Logic Types

CD4071 Quad 2-input
CD4075 Triple 3-input
CD4072 Dual 4-input
 The Logic XOR Function
The Logic XOR Function function states that an output action will
occur or become TRUE if and only if one "OR" event is TRUE. It
excludes the state in which both “OR” events are true.
XOR means "one or the other but not both". It represents the
inequality function. The output is HIGH (1) if the inputs are not
alike otherwise the output is LOW (0).

Symbol Truth Table

A B Q
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
Boolean Expression Q = A⊕B
 The Logic NOT Function
The Logic NOT Function is simply a single input inverter that changes the input of
a logic level "1" to an output of logic level "0" and vice versa. They are more
commonly known as Inverters because they invert the signal
The logic NOT function is so called because its output state is NOT
the same as its input state.

It is generally denoted by a bar or overline ( ¯ ) over its input symbol

which denotes the inversion operation.
The Logic NOT Function

Switch Output
1 0
0 1
Boolean
A
Expression
 The NAND or Not AND function
The NAND or Not AND function is a combination of the two
separate logical functions, the AND function and
the NOT function connected together in series.
NAND

Switch A Switch B Output Description

0 0 1 A and B are both open, lamp ON
0 1 1 A is open and B is closed, lamp ON
1 0 1 A is closed and B is open, lamp ON
1 1 0 A is closed and B is closed, lamp OFF
Boolean Expression (A AND B) A.B
The NAND or Not AND Gate
TTL Logic Types
74LS00 Quad 2-input
74LS10 Triple 3-input
74LS20 Dual 4-input

CMOS Logic Types

CD4011 Quad 2-input
CD4023 Triple 3-input
CD4012 Dual 4-input
 The Logic NOR Function
the NOR or Not OR Gate is also a combination of two separate
functions, theOR function and the NOT function connected
together in series.

Switch A Switch B Output Description

0 0 1 Both A and B are open, lamp ON
0 1 0 A is open and B is closed, lamp OFF
1 0 0 A is closed and B is open, lamp OFF
1 1 0 A is closed and B is closed, lamp OFF
Boolean Expression (A OR B) A+B
The NOR or Not OR Gate
TTL Logic Types
74LS02 Quad 2-input
74LS27 Triple 3-input
74LS260 Dual 4-input

CMOS Logic Types

CD4001 Quad 2-input
CD4025 Triple 3-input
CD4002 Dual 4-input
 The Laws of Boolean
Boolean Algebra is the mathematics we use to analyse digital gates
and circuits. We can use these "Laws of Boolean" to both reduce
and simplify a complex Boolean expression in an attempt to reduce
the number of logic gates required.
The basic Laws of Boolean Algebra that relate to the Commutative
Law allowing a change in position for addition and multiplication,
the Associative Law allowing the removal of brackets for addition
and multiplication, as well as the distributive Law allowing the
factoring of an expression, are the same as in ordinary algebra.
 The Laws of Boolean
Annulment Law - A term AND´ed with a "0" equals 0 or OR´ed with
a "1" will equal 1.
– A . 0 = 0, A variable AND'ed with 0 is always equal to 0.
– A + 1 = 1, A variable OR'ed with 1 is always equal to 1.

Identity Law - A term OR´ed with a "0" or AND´ed with a "1" will
always equal that term.
– A + 0 = A, A variable OR'ed with 0 is always equal to the variable.
– A . 1 = A, A variable AND'ed with 1 is always equal to the variable.

Idempotent Law - An input AND´ed with itself or OR´ed with itself is

equal to that input.
– A + A = A, A variable OR'ed with itself is always equal to the variable.
– A . A = A, A variable AND'ed with itself is always equal to the variable.
 The Laws of Boolean
Complement Law - A term AND´ed with its complement equals "0"
and a term OR´ed with its complement equals "1".
A . A = 0, A variable AND'ed with its complement is always equal to 0.
A + A = 1, A variable OR'ed with its complement is always equal to 1.

Commutative Law - The order of application of two separate terms is

not important.
A . B = B . A, The order in which two variables are AND'ed makes no
difference.
A + B = B + A, The order in which two variables are OR'ed makes no
difference.

Double Negation Law - A term that is inverted twice is equal to the

original term.

A = A, A double complement of a variable is always equal to the variable.

 The Laws of Boolean
de Morgan´s Theorem - There are two "de Morgan´s" rules or
theorems,

(1) Two separate terms NOR´ed together is the same as the two terms
inverted (Complement) andAND´ed for example,

A+B = A. B

(2) Two separate terms NAND´ed together is the same as the two
terms inverted (Complement) and OR´ed for example,

A.B = A +B.
The Laws of Boolean

A⊕B
 The Boolean Algebra
Example
Using the above laws, simplify the following expression:
Q=(A + B)(A + C)

Q=(A + B)(A + C)
Q=AA + AC + AB + BC - Distributive law
Q=A + AC + AB + BC - Identity AND law (A.A = A)
Q=A(1 + C) + AB + BC - Distributive law
Q=A.1 + AB + BC - Identity OR law (1 + C = 1)
Q=A(1 + B) + BC - Distributive law
Q=A.1 + BC - Identity OR law (1 + B = 1)
Q=A + BC - Identity AND law (A.1 = A)

Then the expression: (A + B)(A + C) can be simplified to A + BC

 The Boolean Algebra
Find the Boolean algebra expression for the following system.
AND

OR

NOT
 The Boolean Algebra

Inputs Intermediates Output

C B A A.B.C B C B+C A.(B+C) Q
0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0
0 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1
0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0
0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0
 Pull up and Pull down resistors
any "unused" inputs to the gates must be connected directly to either a
logic level "1" or a logic level "0" by means of a suitable "Pull-up"
or "Pull-down" resistor ( for example 1kΩ resistor ) to produce a
fixed logic signal.

This will prevent the unused input to the gate from "floating" about
and producing false switching of the gate and circuit.
 Combinational Logic Circuits
Combinational Logic Circuits consist of inputs, two or more basic
logic gates and outputs. The logic gates are combined in such a
way that the output state depends entirely on the input states.
Combinational logic circuits have "no memory", "timing" or
"feedback loops", there operation is instantaneous.

A combinational logic circuit performs an operation assigned logically by a

Boolean expression or truth table.
Combinational Logic Circuits
 The Multiplexer
A data selector, more commonly called a Multiplexer, shortened to
"Mux" or "MPX", are combinational logic switching devices that
operate like a very fast acting multiple position rotary switch
They connect or control, multiple input lines called "channels"
consisting of either 2, 4, 8 or 16 individual inputs, one at a time to
an output.

The job of a multiplexer is to allow multiple signals to share a single

common output.
 The 4x1 Multiplexer

Addressing
Input
b a Selected

0 0 A
0 1 B
1 0 C
1 1 D
 The Demultiplexer
The data distributor, known more commonly as a Demultiplexer or
"Demux", takes one single input data line and then switches it to
any one of a number of individual output lines one at a time.
The demultiplexer converts a serial data signal at the input to a
parallel data at its output lines as shown below.

The function of the Demultiplexer is to switch one common data

input line to any one of the 4 output data lines A to D in our
example above
 The 1x4 Demultiplexer

Addressing
Output
b a Selected

0 0 A
0 1 B
1 0 C
1 1 D
 Binary Encoder
Binary Encoder takes ALL its data inputs one at a time and then
converts them into a single encoded output.
So we can say that a binary encoder, is a multi-input combinational
logic circuit that converts the logic level "1" data at its inputs into an
equivalent binary code at its output.

Generally, digital encoders produce outputs of 2-bit, 3-bit or 4-bit

codes depending upon the number of data input lines. (e.g.
Keyboard)
 The binary encoder

Binary Output
Compass
Direction Q0 Q1 Q2

North 0 0 0
North-East 0 0 1
East 0 1 0
South-East 0 1 1
South 1 0 0
South-West 1 0 1
West 1 1 0
North-West 1 1 1
 The Decoder
Encoder is basically, a combinational type logic circuit that converts
the binary code data at its input into one of a number of different
output lines, one at a time producing an equivalent decimal code at
its output.
A decoders output code normally has more bits than its input code
and practical binary decoder circuits include, 2-to-4, 3-to-8 and 4-
to-16 line configurations.
 BCD to 7-Segment Display Decoder
Decoder IC, is a device which converts one digital format into
another and the most commonly used device for doing this is the
Binary Coded Decimal (BCD) to 7-Segment Display Decoder.

A standard 7-segment LED display generally has 8 input connections,

one for each LED segment and one that acts as a common terminal
or connection for all the internal segments.
Some single displays have an additional input pin for the decimal
point in their lower right or left hand corner.
 BCD to 7-Segment Display Decoder

Individual Segments Individual Segments

Display Display
a b c d e f g a b c d e f g
× × × × × × 0 × × × × × × × 8
× × 1 × × × × × 9
× × × × × 2 × × × × × × A
× × × × × 3 × × × × × b
× × × × 4 × × × × C
× × × × × 5 × × × × × d
× × × × × × 6 × × × × × E
× × × 7 × × × × F
 BCD Numbers
Binary Coded Decimal (BCD)
numbers are made up using
just 4 data bits similar to the Binary Pattern
Hexadecimal numbers but Decimal BCD
unlike hexadecimal numbers 8 4 2 1
that range in full
0 0 0 0 0 0
from 0 through to F, BCD
1 0 0 0 1 1
numbers only range
2 0 0 1 0 2
from 0 to 9, with the binary
number patterns 3 0 0 1 1 3
of 1010 through 4 0 1 0 0 4
to 1111 (A to F) being 5 0 1 0 1 5
invalid inputs for this type of 6 0 1 1 0 6
display and so are not used 7 0 1 1 1 7
8 1 0 0 0 8
9 1 0 0 1 9
10 N.A.
BCD to 7-Segment Display Decoder
 Binary Adder
The Binary Adder is made up from standard AND and Ex-OR gates
and allow us to "add" together single bit binary numbers, a and b to
produce two outputs, the SUM of the addition and
a CARRY called the Carry-out, ( Cout ) bit.
00 00 01 01
+ 00 + 01 + 00 + 01
00 01 01 10
Symbol Truth Table
A B SUM CARRY
0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1
Boolean Expression: Sum = A ⊕ B Carry = A . B
 Binary Comparator
Digital or Binary Comparators are made up from standard
AND, NOR and NOT gates that compare the digital signals present
at their input terminals and produce an output depending upon the
condition of those inputs.

Inputs Outputs
B A A>B A=B A<B
0 0 0 1 0
0 1 1 0 0
1 0 0 0 1
1 1 0 1 0
 Sequential Logic
Sequential Logic circuits have some form of inherent "Memory" built
in to them as they are able to take into account their previous input
state as well as those actually present, a sort of "before" and "after"
is involved with sequential circuits.
The output state of a sequential logic circuit is a function of the
following three states, the "present input", the "past input" and/or
the "past output". Sequential Logic circuits remember these
conditions and stay fixed in their current state until the next clock
signal changes one of the states, giving sequential logic circuits
"Memory".
Sequential logic circuits are generally termed as two state or Bistable
devices which can have their output or outputs set in one of two
basic states, a logic level "1" or a logic level "0" and will remain
"latched" indefinitely in this current state or condition until some
other input trigger pulse or signal is applied which will cause the
bistable to change its state once again.
 Sequential Logic Representation
The word "Sequential" means that things happen in a "sequence", one
after another and in Sequential Logic circuits, the actual clock
signal determines when things will happen next.

1. Event Driven - asynchronous circuits that change state immediately when enabled.
2. Clock Driven - synchronous circuits that are synchronised to a specific clock
signal.
3. Pulse Driven - which is a combination of the two that responds to triggering pulses.
 RS Flip Flop
The SR flip-flop, also known as a SR Latch, can be considered as one
of the most basic sequential logic circuit possible.
This simple flip-flop is basically a one-bit memory bistable device
that has two inputs, one which will "SET" the device (meaning the
output = "1"), and is labelled S and another which will "RESET"
the device (meaning the output = "0"), labelled R.
Then the SR description stands for "Set-Reset".
The reset input resets the flip-flop back to its original state with an
output Q that will be either at a logic level "1" or logic "0"
depending upon this set/reset condition
 RS Flip Flop
Active low RS Flip flop implementation with NAND gates

State S R Q Q Description
1 0 1 0 Set Q » 1
Set
1 1 1 0 no change
0 1 0 1 Reset Q » 0
Reset
1 1 0 1 no change
0 0 0 1 memory with Q = 0
Invalid
0 0 1 0 memory with Q = 1
 SR Flip Flop
Nor gate RS Flip Flop
 JK Flip Flop
The JK flip-flop is basically a gated SR flip-flop with the addition of
a clock input circuitry that prevents the illegal or invalid output
condition that can occur when both inputs S and R are equal to
logic level "1". Due to this additional clocked input, a JK flip-flop
has four possible input combinations, "logic 1", "logic 0", "no
change" and "toggle"
 JK Flip Flop Truth Table

C J K Q(n) Q(n+1)
Delete 1 0 1 0,1 0,0
Write 1 1 0 1,0 1,1
Save 1 0 0 0,1 0,1
Toggle 1 1 1 1,0 0,1
 D Flip Flop
The D flip-flop is by far the most important of the clocked flip-flops
as it ensures that ensures that inputs S and R are never equal to one
at the same time.
D-type flip-flops are constructed from a gated SR flip-flopwith an
inverter added between the S and the R inputs to allow for a
single D (data) input.
This single data input D is used in place of the "set" signal, and the
inverter is used to generate the complementary "reset" input
thereby making a level-sensitive D-type flip-flop from a level-
sensitive RS-latch as now S = D and R = not D
 D Flip Flop

Clk D Q Q Description
Memory
↓»0 X Q Q
no change
↑»1 0 0 1 Reset Q » 0
↑»1 1 1 0 Set Q » 1
D Flip Flop / Data Latch
D Flip Flop- Frequency divider
 The Clock
As seen in previous applications, Sequential Logic circuits to
operate in a "sequential" way, they require the addition of a clock
pulse or timing signal to cause them to change their state.
Clock pulses are generally continuous square or rectangular shaped
waveform that is produced by a pulse generator.
This multivibrator circuit oscillates between a "HIGH" state and a
"LOW" state producing a continuous output.
Sequential logic circuits that use the clock signal for synchronization
are dependant upon the frequency and and clock pulse width to
activate there switching action.
 The Clock
Active HIGH - if the state changes occur at the clock's rising edge or
during the clock width.
Active LOW - if the state changes occur at the clock's falling edge.
Duty Cycle - is the ratio of clock width and clock period.
Clock Width - this is the time during which the value of the clock
signal is equal to one.

Clock Period - this is the time between successive transitions in the

same direction, i.e., between two rising or two falling edges.
Clock Frequency - the clock frequency is the reciprocal of the clock
period, frequency = 1/clock period
 The Clock
There are basically three types of clock pulse generation circuits:

Astable - A free-running multivibrator that has NO stable states but

switches continuously between two states this action produces a
train of square wave pulses at a fixed frequency.

Monostable - A one-shot multivibrator that has only ONE stable state

and is triggered externally with it returning back to its first stable
state.

Bistable - A flip-flop that has TWO stable states that produces a

single pulse either positive or negative in value.
 NE555 Astable Multivibrator
Astable Multivibrators are a type of free running oscillator that have
no permanent "meta" or "steady" state but are continually changing
there output from one state ("LOW") to the other state ("HIGH")
The continual switching action from "HIGH" to "LOW" and "LOW"
to "HIGH" produces a continuous and stable square wave output
that switches abruptly between the two logic levels making it ideal
for timing and clock pulse applications.

t1 = 0.693 (R1 + R2) C1

t2 = 0.693 (R2) C1

T = t1 + t2
 NAND Gate Monostable Circuit
Monostable Multivibrators or "one-shot" pulse generators are used
to convert short sharp pulses into wider ones for timing
applications. Monostable multivibrators generate a single output
pulse, either "high" or "low", when a suitable external trigger
signal or pulse T is applied.
 The bistable multivibrator
The bistable multivibrator can be switched over from one stable state
to the other by the application of an external trigger pulse thus, it
requires two external trigger pulses before it returns back to its
original state
Find the Boolean algebra expression for
the given system.
Find the Boolean algebra expression for
the given system.
Draw the digital logic circutis for the given Boolean algebra expression and simplify
the expression if possible.
Draw the digital logic circutis for the given Boolean algebra expression and simplify
the expression if possible.
Thanks for your interest.