MFS 105

Module 1, Lecture 2
Concepts of Computer Hardware
DEFINITIONS:
A Computer is a programmable machine (or more precisely, a
programmable sequential state machine). There are two basic kinds of
computers: analog and digital.

Analog Computers are analog devices. That is, they have continuous states
rather than discrete numbered states. An analog computer can represent
fractional or irrational values exactly, with no round-off. Analog computers
are almost never used outside of experimental settings.

A Digital Computer is a programmable clocked sequential state machine. A

digital computer uses discrete states. A binary digital computer uses two
discrete states, such as positive/negative, high/low, on/off, used to
represent the binary digits zero and one.
USES:
Data processing: Use of a computer in commercial and financial work. This
includes billing, shipping and receiving, inventory control, and similar business
related functions, as well as the “electronic office”.

Scientific processing: Use of a computer to support science. This can be as

simple as gathering and analyzing raw data and as complex as modeling
natural phenomenon (weather and climate models, thermodynamics, nuclear
engineering, etc.).

Multimedia includes content creation (composing music, performing music,

recording music, editing film and video, special effects, animation, illustration,
laying out print materials, etc.) and multimedia playback (games, DVDs,
instructional materials, movies etc.).
PARTS OF A COMPUTER:

The classic crude over simplification of a computer is that it contains three

elements: processor unit, memory, and I/O (input/output).

The borders between these three terms are highly ambitious, non-contiguous,
and erratically shifting.

A slightly less crude oversimplification divides a computer into five elements:

arithmetic and logic subsystem, control subsystem, main storage, input
subsystem, and output subsystem.
In Diagram
1. Processor

The processor is the part of the computer that actually does the computations.
This is sometimes called an MPU (for main processor unit) or CPU (for central
processing unit or central processor unit).

A processor typically contains an arithmetic/logic unit (ALU), control unit

(including processor flags, flag register, or status register), internal buses, and
sometimes special function units (the most common special function unit being
a floating point unit for floating point arithmetic). Some computers have more
than one processor. This is called multi-processing.
The major kinds of digital processors are:

CISC stands for Complex Instruction Set Computer. Mainframe computers

and minicomputers have CISC processors. Many of the first two generations
of microprocessors were also CISC.

RISC stands for Reduced Instruction Set Computer. RISC came about as a
result of academic research that showed that a small well designed
instruction set running compiled programs at high speed could perform more
computing work than a CISC running the same programs (although very
expensive hand optimized assembly language favored CISC).

DSP stands for Digital Signal Processing. DSP is used primarily in dedicated
devices, such as MODEMs, digital cameras, graphics cards, and other
specialty devices.
Hybrid processors combine elements of two or three of the major classes of
processors.

For further readings:

http://www.osdata.com/system/physical/processr.htm

Based on function, processors have 3 main parts.

Arithmetic and Logic
An arithmetic/logic unit (ALU) performs integer arithmetic and logic
operations. It also performs shift and rotate operations and other specialized
operations. Usually floating point arithmetic is performed by a dedicated
floating point unit (FPU), which may be implemented as a co-processor.

control

Control units
These are in charge of the computer. Control units fetch and decode machine
instructions. Control units may also control some external devices.
A Bus is a set (group) of parallel lines through which information (data,
addresses, instructions, and other information) travels on inside a computer.
Information travels on buses as a series of electrical pulses, each pulse
representing a one bit or a zero bit (there are trinary, or three-state, buses, but
they are rare).

Schematic representation of a Bus

(courtesy: http://www.brainbell.com/tutors/A+/Hardware/The_CPU.htm)
An internal bus is a bus inside the processor, moving information between
registers and other internal components or units.

An external bus is a bus outside of the processor (but inside the computer),
moving data, addresses, and other information between major components
(including cards) inside the computer. Some common kinds of buses are the
system bus, a data bus, an address bus, a cache bus, a memory bus, and an I/O bus.
(Images courtesy: http://www.jlcenterprises.net/Products.htm)
2. Main Storage
Main storage is also called memory or internal memory (to distinguish from
external memory, such as hard drives).

Internal memory can be studied under three heads:

RAM, ROM and Registers and Flags

RAM
Random Access Memory, and is the basic kind of internal memory. RAM is
called “random access” because the processor or computer can access
any location in memory in contrast to sequential access devices, which must be
accessed in order). Modern RAM is made from integrated circuits.

Static RAM is called static because it will continue to hold and store information
even when power is removed. Magnetic core and reed relays are examples of
static memory.

Dynamic RAM is called dynamic because it loses all data when power is
removed. Transistors and integrated circuits are examples of dynamic memory. It
is possible to have battery back up for devices that are normally dynamic to turn
them into static memory.
 dd RAM

sd RAM

Extra Credit Question: Differentiate between the two

ROM
Read Only Memory (it is also random access, but only for reads). ROM is typically
used to store things that will never change for the life of the computer, such as low
level portions of an operating system.

Some processors (or variations within processor families) might have RAM and/or
ROM built into the same chip as the processor (normally used for processors used
in standalone devices, such as arcade video games, ATMs, microwave ovens, car
ignition systems, etc.).
EPROM is Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory, a special kind of
ROM that can be erased and reprogrammed with specialized equipment (but
not by the processor it is connected to).

EPROMs allow makers of industrial devices (and other similar equipment)

to have the benefits of ROM, yet also allow for updating or upgrading the
software without having to buy new ROM and throw out the old (the
EPROMs are collected, erased and rewritten centrally, then placed back into
the machines).

ACQ: Where is the EEPROM technolgy/chip

most frequently used?

ACQ: What is the function of a ROM Battery?

Registers are a special kind of memory that exists inside a processor.
Typically a processor will have several internal registers that are much faster than
main memory. These registers usually have specialized capabilities for
arithmetic, logic, and other operations. Registers are usually fairly small (8, 16, 32,
or 64 bits for integer data, address, and control registers; 32, 64, 96, or 128 bits for
floating point registers). Some processors separate integer data and address
registers, while other processors have general purpose registers that can be used
for both data and address purposes.

Flags are single bit memory used for testing, comparison, and conditional
operations (especially conditional branching).

Further reading: http://www.osdata.com/topic/language/asm/register.htm

http://www.osdata.com/system/physical/memory.htm
External Storage
External storage (also called auxillary storage) is any storage other than main
memory. In modern times this is mostly hard drives and removable media
(such as floppy disks, Zip disks, optical media, etc.).

With the advent of USB and FireWire hard drives, the line between permanent
hard drives and removable media is blurred. Other kinds of external storage
include tape drives, drum drives, paper tape, and punched cards.

Random access or indexed access devices (such as hard drives, removable

media, and drum drives) provide an extension of memory (although usually
accessed through logical file systems). Sequential access devices (such as tape
drives, paper tape punch/readers, or dumb terminals) provide for off-line
storage of large amounts of information (or back ups of data) and are often
called I/O devices (for input/output).
3. Input / Output
Most external devices are capable of both input and output (I/O). Some devices
are inherently input-only (also called read-only) or inherently output-only (also
called write-only). Regardless of whether a device is I/O, read-only, or write-
only, external devices can be classified as block or character devices.
A character device is one that inputs or outputs data in a stream of characters,
bytes, or bits. Character devices can further be classified as serial or parallel.
Examples of character devices include printers, keyboards, and mouse.

A serial device streams data as a series of bits, moving data one bit at a time.
Examples of serial devices include printers and MODEMs.
A parallel device streams data in a small group of bits simultaneously. Usually
the group is a single eight-bit byte (or possibly seven or nine bits, with the
possibility of various control or parity bits included in the data stream). Each
group usually corresponds to a single character of data. Rarely there will be a
larger group of bits (word, longword, doubleword, etc.). The most common
parallel device is a printer (although most modern printers have both a serial
and a parallel connection, allowing greater connection flexibility).
Small Computer System Interface (SCSI) is a set of standards for physically
connecting and transferring data between computers and peripheral devices. The
SCSI standards define commands, protocols, and electrical and optical interfaces.
SCSI is most commonly used for hard disks and tape drives, but it can connect a
wide range of other devices, including scanners and CD drives.

USB
SCSI
USB

Universal Serial Bus (USB) is an industry standard developed in the mid-

1990s that defines the cables, connectors and communications
protocols used in a bus for connection, communication and power supply
between computers and electronic devices.

It is not a true Bus.

FURTHER READING ON USB:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_Serial_Bus
A block device moves large blocks of data at once. This may be physically
implemented as a serial or parallel stream of data, but the entire block gets
transferred as single packet of data. Most block devices are random access
(that is, information can be read or written from blocks anywhere on the
device). Examples of random access block devices include hard disks,
floppy disks, and drum drives. Examples of sequential access block devices
include magnetic tape drives and high speed paper tape readers.
Input devices are devices that bring information into a computer. Pure input
devices include such things as punched card readers, paper tape readers,
keyboards, mice, drawing tablets, touch-pads, trackballs, and game controllers.
Devices that have an input component include magnetic tape drives, touch-
screens, and dumb terminals.

Output devices are devices that bring information out of a computer. Pure
output devices include such things as card punches, paper tape punches, LED
displays (for light emitting diodes), monitors, printers, and pen plotters.
Devices that have an output component include magnetic tape drives,
combination paper tape reader/punches, teletypes, and dumb terminals.
END