Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering

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 MLRITM CS – Unit I

 Presentation Outline:

 Signal flow graphs techniques,

 Block diagram to Signal flow graph conversion,

 Calculating Transfer function using Mason’s Gain

Formulae,

 Practice Problems.

Rupa Kumar Dhanavath@ Dept. of ECE 2

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 Signal Flow Graph (SFG):

• Signal flow graph is a graphical representation of

the relationships between the system variables.

• Signal flow graph does not require any reduction

because there is a graph gain formula which
directly gives the transfer function.

• It was developed by S.J. Mason.

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 Signal Flow Graph (SFG):

• Signal flow graph can be obtained from the block

diagram of a system.

• Signal flow graph can also be obtained from

system equations directly.

• The equations must be in algebraic form (𝑠−domain).

• It is applicable only for linear systems or LTI systems.

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 Components of a Signal Flow Graph:

• Node:
.
 A point representing a variable or a signal.
 There are three types of nodes — input node, output node
and mixed node.

• Source or Input Node: .

 Node with only outgoing branches.

• Sink or Output Node: .

 Node with only incoming branches.

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 Components of a Signal Flow Graph:

• Mixed Node:
 It is a node, which has both incoming and outgoing
branches.
.

• Branch: . G .
– Branch is a line segment which joins two nodes.
– It has both gain and direction. The signal passing through a
branch gets multiplied by its gain.

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 Example:

Example: Let us consider the following signal flow graph to

identify these nodes & branch(s).

 The nodes present in this signal flow graph are y1, y2,
y3 and y4.
 y1 and y4 are the input node and output node respectively.
 y2 and y3 are mixed nodes.
 There are four branches in the above signal flow graph. These
branches have gains of a, b, c and -d.
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 Components of a Signal Flow Graph:

• Path:
 It is the route of connected branches in the direction
of branch arrows.
• Open Path:
𝑈
. 𝐸
. 𝐺 𝑌
.
 A path start at one node ends at another node.
• Forward Path:
 A path start at input node ends at output node.

In the above figure, the path started at y1 and ended at y4,

therefore it is forward path.
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 Components of a Signal Flow Graph:

• Closed path/Loop:
 A path which starts and ends at the same node.

• Loop Gain:
 Loop gain is the product of branch gain which travels in
the loop.

• Non-touching loops:
 Loops with no common nodes.
Rupa Kumar Dhanavath@ Dept. of ECE 9
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 Block diagram Vs Signal flow graph:

Block diagram Signal flow graph

R(s) C(s)
G(s) R(s) G(s) C(s)

1 G(s)
R(s) E(s) C(s) C(s)
G(s) R(s) E(s) H
+_
(s)
H (s)
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 Signal flow graph using system equations:

 Let us construct a signal flow graph by considering the
following algebraic equations .

𝑦 2=𝑎12 𝑦 1+𝑎42 𝑦 4 →(1) 𝑦 5=𝑎45 𝑦 4 +𝑎35 𝑦 3 →(4)

𝑦 3=𝑎23 𝑦 2 +𝑎53 𝑦 5 →(2)
𝑦 6=𝑎56 𝑦 5 →(5)
𝑦 4 =𝑎34 𝑦 3 →(3)
There will be six nodes (y1, y2, y3, y4, y5 and y6) and
eight branches in this signal flow graph. The gains of the
branches are a12, a23, a34, a45, a56, a42, a53 and a35.
Rupa Kumar Dhanavath@ Dept. of ECE 11
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 Signal flow graph using system equations:

 To get the overall signal flow graph, draw the signal flow
graph for each equation, then combine all these signal flow
graphs:
Step 1: Signal flow graph for 𝑦 2=𝑎 12 𝑦 1+𝑎 42 𝑦 4 is shown below:

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 Signal flow graph using system equations:

Step 2: Signal flow graph for 𝑦 3=𝑎23 𝑦 2 +𝑎53 𝑦 5 is shown below:

Step 3: Signal flow graph for 𝑦 4 =𝑎 34 𝑦 3 is shown below:

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 Signal flow graph using system equations:

Step 4: Signal flow graph for 𝑦 5=𝑎 45 𝑦 4 +𝑎 35 𝑦 3 is shown below:

Step 5: Signal flow graph for 𝑦 6=𝑎56 𝑦 5 is shown below:

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 Signal flow graph using system equations:

Step 6: Signal flow graph of overall system is shown in the

following figure.
𝑦 2=𝑎12 𝑦 1+𝑎42 𝑦 4 →(1) 𝑦 5=𝑎45 𝑦 4 +𝑎35 𝑦 3 →(4)
𝑦 3=𝑎23 𝑦 2 +𝑎53 𝑦 5 →(2)

𝑦 4 =𝑎34 𝑦 3 →(3) 𝑦 6=𝑎56 𝑦 5 →(5)

Rupa Kumar Dhanavath@ Dept. of ECE 15
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 Block diagram to Signal flow graph conversion:

Follow these steps for converting a block diagram into its equivalent
signal flow graph.

 Assume nodes at input, output, summing points and take-off

points and in between cascaded blocks.
 Represent block as branches and transfer functions as gains of
the branches.
 Connect the nodes as per the block diagram.
 For example, between summing points, between summing point
and takeoff point, between input and summing point, between
take-off point and output.
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 Block diagram to Signal flow graph conversion:

Example: Let us convert the following block diagram into its
equivalent signal flow graph.

Represent the input signal R(s) and output signal C(s) of block
diagram as input node R(s) and output node C(s) in signal flow
graph.
Rupa Kumar Dhanavath@ Dept. of ECE 17
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 Block diagram to Signal flow graph conversion:

 There are nine nodes other than input and output nodes. ( i.e.,
four nodes for four summing points, four nodes for four take-off
points and one node for the variable between blocks G1 and G2.
The equivalent signal flow graph:

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 Mason’s Gain Formula:

 Purpose of Mason’s gain formula is to find the
overall gain of the signal flow graph which is the
overall transfer function of the system.
N
pk  k
Overall gain = 𝑇𝐹
 
k 1 
– 𝑇𝐹: Overall transfer function of the system
– 𝑝𝑘 : path gain of 𝑘 𝑡 ℎ forward path
– K: number of forward paths in the graph
– ∆: determinant of the graph
– ∆ 𝑘 : the value of delta for the part of the graph not
touching the 𝑘 𝑡 ℎ forward path.
Rupa Kumar Dhanavath@ Dept. of ECE 19
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 Mason’s Gain Formula:

 ∆ = 1–(sum of individual loop gains)+(sum of gain

products of two non-touching loops)−(sum of gain
products of three non-touching loops)+...

 ∆ 𝑘 :=1–(sum of loop gains which are not touching to

the 𝑘 𝑡 ℎ forward path)
Rupa Kumar Dhanavath@ Dept. of ECE 20
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 Example: 1
1. Calculate forward path transfer function Pk for each forward
path k.

P1 G1G2G3G4
P2 
G5G6G7G8
L1  G 2 H L2  H 3 G 3 ,
2. Calculate all
2,
loop TF’s. L4  G7 H 7
3. Consider
L3  G6 H 6 nontouching
, loops 2 at a time.
 Loops L1 do not touch Loops L3 and L4
 Loops L2 do not touch Loops L3 and L4
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 Example:

Y (s) P11 
TF
P22
5. Calculate Δ.
R(s) 
Δ = 1 L1  L2  L3  L4  L1 L3  L1 L4  L2 L3  L2
L4 
6. Calculate Δk for each forward
path.
1  1 L3  L4 
 2  1 L1  L2 
G1G2G3G4 1 L3 - L4   G5G6G7G8 1 L1 - L2

 L1  L2  L3  L4  L1 L3  L1 L4  L2 L3  L2
7. Therefore, TF is 1
Rupa Kumar Dhanavath@ Dept. of ECE 22
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 Example:

P1

P2

1. Calculate forward path gains for each forward path.

𝑃 1=𝐺1 𝐺2 𝐺3 𝐺4 (path 1)and 𝑃 2=𝐺5 𝐺6 𝐺7 𝐺 8 (path 2)
2. Calculate all loop gains.
𝐿1=𝐺2 𝐻 2 , 𝐿2=𝐻 3 𝐺3 , 𝐿3=𝐺6 𝐻 6 , 𝐿4=𝐺7 𝐻 7
3. Consider two non-touching loops.
L1L3 L1L4
L2L4 L2L3
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 Example:

4. Consider three non-touching loops.

None.

5. Calculate Δ from steps 2,3,4.

Δ =1− ( 𝐿1+ 𝐿2 + 𝐿3 + 𝐿4 ) + ( 𝐿1 𝐿3 + 𝐿1 𝐿4 + 𝐿2 𝐿3 + 𝐿2 𝐿4 )

Δ=1− ( 𝐺 2 𝐻 2 +𝐻 3 𝐺3 +𝐺6 𝐻 6 +𝐺7 𝐻 7 ) +¿

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 Example:
Eliminate forward path-1

Δ 1=1 − ( 𝐿3+ 𝐿4 )
Δ 1=1 − ( 𝐺6 𝐻 6 + 𝐺7 𝐻 7 )

Eliminate forward path-2

Δ 2=1− ( 𝐿1+ 𝐿2 )

Δ 2=1− ( 𝐺 2 𝐻 2 + 𝐺3 𝐻 3 )

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 Example:

𝑌 (𝑠) 𝑃 1 Δ1 +𝑃 2 Δ 2
=
𝑅(𝑠) Δ

𝑌 ( 𝑠) 𝐺1 𝐺2 𝐺3 𝐺4 [ 1 − ( 𝐺6 𝐻 6 + 𝐺7 𝐻 7 ) ] + 𝐺5 𝐺6 𝐺7 𝐺8 [ 1− ( 𝐺 2 𝐻 2 + 𝐺3 𝐻 3 ) ]
=
𝑅( 𝑠) 1− ( 𝐺2 𝐻 2 + 𝐻 3 𝐺3 +𝐺 6 𝐻 6 +𝐺7 𝐻 7 ) + ( 𝐺2 𝐻 2 𝐺6 𝐻 6 +𝐺 2 𝐻 2 𝐺7 𝐻 7 + 𝐻 3 𝐺3 𝐺6 𝐻 6 + 𝐻 3 𝐺3 𝐺7 𝐻 7 )

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 Example:2

𝐺5
𝑈 1 𝐴 𝐺1 𝐵 𝐺2 𝐶 𝐺3 𝐷 𝐺4 𝐸 1 𝑌

−𝐻1
−𝐻2 −𝐻3
Forward paths: Loops:
Two non-touchingloops:
𝐿1 = −H1
𝑝1 = 𝐺1𝐺2𝐺3𝐺4
𝐿2 = −𝐺3𝐻2 𝐿1𝐿2 = 𝐻1𝐻2𝐺3
𝑝2 = 𝐺5
𝐿3 = −𝐺4𝐻3 𝐿1𝐿3 = 𝐻1𝐻3𝐺4

( )
𝑝 𝑘 Δ 𝑘 𝑝1 Δ 1+𝑝 2 Δ2 𝐺1 𝐺2 𝐺3 𝐺4 ( Δ 1 ) +𝐺5 ( Δ 2 )
2
¿∑ = =
𝑇𝐹 𝐾=1 Δ Δ Δ
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 Example:

𝐺5
𝑈 1 𝐴 𝐺1 𝐵 𝐺2 𝐶 𝐺3 𝐷 𝐺4 𝐸 1 𝑌

−𝐻1
−𝐻2 −𝐻3
Δ =1− [ 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 + 𝐿3 ] + [ 𝐿1 𝐿2+ 𝐿1 𝐿3 ]
∆= 1 + 𝐻1 + 𝐺3𝐻2 + 𝐺4𝐻3 + 𝐻1𝐻2𝐺3 + 𝐻1𝐻3𝐺4 ∆1= 1 ∆2= 1 + 𝐻1 + 𝐺3𝐻2

𝐺1 𝐺2 𝐺3 𝐺4 ( 1 ) +𝐺5 ( 1+𝐻 1 +𝐺 3 𝐻 2) 𝐺1 𝐺 2 𝐺3 𝐺4 +𝐺5 +𝐻 1 𝐺5 +𝐺5 𝐺3 𝐻 2

𝑇𝐹 = =
1+ 𝐻 1 +𝐺3 𝐻 2 +𝐺4 𝐻 3 +𝐻 1 𝐻 2 𝐻 3 +𝐻 1 𝐻 3 𝐺4 1+ 𝐻 1+𝐺3 𝐻 2 +𝐺 4 𝐻 3 +𝐻 1 𝐻 2 𝐻 3 +𝐻 1 𝐻 3 𝐺4

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 Example: 3

Apply Mason’s Rule to calculate the transfer function of

the given system

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 Example:

• In this system there is only one forward path between the input R(s) and the
output C(s). The forward path gain is
𝑃1 = 𝐺1𝐺2𝐺3
• we see that there are three individual loops. The gains of these loops are
𝐿1 = 𝐺1𝐺2𝐻1
𝐿2 = −𝐺2𝐺3𝐻2
𝐿3 = −𝐺1𝐺2𝐺3

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Continued…..
 Example:

• Note that since all three loops have a common branch, there are no non-touching
loops. Hence, the determinant ∆ is given by

∆= 1 − (𝐿1+ 𝐿2 + 𝐿3 )

= 1 − 𝐺1𝐺2𝐻1 +𝐺2 𝐺3𝐻2 +𝐺1 𝐺2𝐺3

• There is no any non touching loop so we get,
∆𝑙 = 1
Therefore, the overall gain between the input 𝑅𝑠 and the output 𝐶𝑠 or the
closed
loop transfer function, is given by
𝐶𝑠 𝐺1𝐺2𝐺3
=
𝑅𝑠 1 − 𝐺1𝐺2𝐻1 +𝐺2 𝐺3𝐻2 +𝐺1 𝐺2𝐺3
6/09/2016 Rupa Kumar Dhanavath@ Dept. of ECE 31 31
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 Example:4 Calculate Gain using Mason’s Rule

Therefore,

T  C(s)  P   P 
1 1 2 2

There are three feedback loops R(s) 

L1  G1G4 H 1 , L2  G1G2 G4 H 2 , L3  G1G3G4 H 2

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 Example:4 Calculate Gain using Mason’s Rule

There are no non-touching loops, therefore

∆ = 1- (sum of all individual loop gains)

  1   L1  L 2  L3 

  1  G1G4 H 1  G1G2 G4 H 2  G1G3G4 H 2


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 Example:4 Calculate Gain using Mason’s Rule

Eliminate forward path-1

∆1 = 1- (sum of all individual loop gains)+...

∆1 = 1

Eliminate forward path-2

∆2 = 1- (sum of all individual loop gains)+...

∆2 = 1
Rupa Kumar Dhanavath@ Dept. of ECE 34
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 Example:4 Calculate Gain using Mason’s Rule

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 Example:05

• Find the transfer function, C(s)/R(s), for the signal-flow

graph in figure below.

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 Example:05

• There is only one forward Path.

𝑃 1=𝐺1 (𝑠)𝐺2 (𝑠)𝐺3 (𝑠)𝐺4 (𝑠)𝐺5 (𝑠)

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 Example:05

• There are four feedback loops.

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 Example:05

• Non-touching loops taken two at a time.

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 Example:05

• Non-touching loops taken three at a time.

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 Example:05

Eliminate forward path-1

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 Example:06 Calculate Gain Using Mason’s Rule

There are three forward paths, therefore n=3.

∑𝑃 Δ
𝐶 ( 𝑠) 𝑖=1 𝑖 𝑖 𝑃 1 Δ1 + 𝑃 2 Δ 2 + 𝑃 3 Δ 3
= =
𝑅( 𝑠) Δ Δ
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 Example:06
Forward Paths

𝑃 3 = 𝐴42 𝐴54 𝐴65 𝐴76

𝑃 1= 𝐴32 𝐴43 𝐴54 𝐴65 𝐴76 𝑃 2= 𝐴72

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 Example:06
Loop Gains of the Feedback Loops

𝐿1= 𝐴32 𝐴23 𝐿5= 𝐴76 𝐴67

𝐿2= 𝐴43 𝐴34 𝐿9= 𝐴72 𝐴57 𝐴45 𝐴34 𝐴23
𝐿6= 𝐴77
𝐿3= 𝐴54 𝐴45 𝐿10= 𝐴72 𝐴67 𝐴56 𝐴45 𝐴34 𝐴23
𝐿7= 𝐴42 𝐴34 𝐴23
𝐿4 = 𝐴65 𝐴56
𝐿8= 𝐴65 𝐴76 𝐴5 7
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 Example:06 two non-touching loops

𝐿1 𝐿3 𝐿2 𝐿4 𝐿3 𝐿5 𝐿4 𝐿6 𝐿5 𝐿7 L6
𝐿1 𝐿4 𝐿2 𝐿5 𝐿3 𝐿6 𝐿4 𝐿7
𝐿1 𝐿5 𝐿2 𝐿6
𝐿1 𝐿6 𝐿2 𝐿8
𝐿1 𝐿8
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 Example:06 Calculate Gain Using Mason’s Rule

Three non-touching loops

𝐿1 𝐿3
𝐿1 𝐿4 𝐿2 𝐿4
𝐿1 𝐿5 𝐿2 𝐿5 𝐿3 𝐿5 𝐿4 𝐿6
𝐿1 𝐿6 𝐿2 𝐿6 𝐿3 𝐿6 𝐿4 𝐿7 𝐿5 𝐿7 𝐿7 𝐿8
𝐿1 𝐿8 𝐿2 𝐿8
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 Example:07 Calculate Gain Using Mason’s Rule

H1

R(s) E(s) X － X3 C(s)

G1 G2 G3 G4
－
－
1 X
2
H2

H3
－ H1
R(s) 1 E(s) G1 X1 G2 X2 G3 X3 G4 C(s)

－ H2
－ H3
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 Example:07

－ H1
R(s) 1 E(s) G1 X1 G2 X2 G3 G4 X3 1 C(s)

－ H2

－ H3

Δ=1+(𝐺1 𝐺2 𝐺3 𝐺4 𝐻 3+𝐺2 𝐺3 𝐻2 +𝐺3 𝐺4 𝐻1 )

𝐶(𝑠) 𝐺1 𝐺2 𝐺3 𝐺 4
𝐺= =
𝑅(𝑠) 1+𝐺1 𝐺2 𝐺 3 𝐺4 𝐻 3 +𝐺2 𝐺3 𝐻 2+𝐺3 𝐺 4 𝐻 1
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 Example:08 Calculate Gain Using Mason’s Rule

－
－ X1 G1 Y1

R(s) + + C(s)
E(s)
－ － +
X2
G2
－ Y2

-1
X1 G1 Y1
-1
-1 1
R(s) 1 E(s) C(s)
1 1 1
X2 G2 Y2

-1
-1

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 Example:08
-1

-1 X1
G Y1
-1
1
R(s) 1 E(s) 1 C(s)
1 1 1
X2 G Y2
2

-1 -1
7 loops:
[𝐺1 ⋅(−1)]; [𝐺2 ⋅(− 1)]; [𝐺1 ⋅(−1)⋅𝐺2 ⋅1]; [(− 1)⋅𝐺1 ⋅1⋅(−1)];
[(− 1)⋅𝐺1 ⋅(− 1)⋅𝐺 2 ⋅1⋅(− 1)]; [1⋅ 𝐺2 ⋅1⋅(−1)]; [1⋅ 𝐺2 ⋅1⋅𝐺1 ⋅1⋅(−1)].
3 ‘2 non-touching loops’ :
[𝐺1 ⋅(−1)]⋅[𝐺2 ⋅(−1)]; [(− 1)⋅𝐺1 ⋅1⋅(−1)]⋅[𝐺2 ⋅(−1)];
[1⋅ 𝐺2 ⋅1 ⋅(−1)]⋅[𝐺1 ⋅(− 1)].
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 Example:08

-1
X G Y
-1 1
R(s) 1 E(s) 1
1
-1 1 C(s)
1 X 1 Y 1
G
2 2
2

-1 -1

Then: Δ =1+2 𝐺2 + 4 𝐺1 𝐺 2
4 forward paths:
𝑝 1=(−1)⋅ 𝐺1 ⋅1 Δ1 =1+𝐺 2
𝑝 2=(−1)⋅𝐺1 ⋅(−1)⋅𝐺2 ⋅1 Δ 2=1
𝑝 3=1⋅ 𝐺2 ⋅1 Δ3 =1+ 𝐺1
𝑝 4 =1 ⋅𝐺2 ⋅1⋅ 𝐺1 ⋅1 Δ 4=1
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 Example:08

We have

𝐶 (𝑠) ∑ 𝑝 Δ 𝑘
❑
𝑘
=
𝑅(𝑠) Δ

52
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 Example:09 Calculate Gain Using Mason’s Rule

• The signal flow graph of the above block diagram is shown below.

• There are two forward paths. The path gains are

• The three feedback loop gains are

• No loops are non-touching, hence

• Because the loops touch the nodes of P1, • Hence the control ratio T = C/R is
hence

• Since no loops touch the nodes of P2,

therefore

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 Example:10 Calculate Gain Using Mason’s Rule

• The signal flow graph is shown in the figure.

• The two forward path gains are

• The five feedback loop gains are

• There are no non-touching loops, hence

• All feedback loops touches the two forward

paths, hence

• Hence the control ratio T =

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 Example:11 Calculate Gain Using Mason’s Rule

1
𝑉 1 (𝑠)= 𝐼 1 (𝑠)+ 𝐼 1 (𝑠) 𝑅
𝐶𝑠
𝐶𝑠 𝑉 1(𝑠)− 𝐶𝑠𝑉 2 (𝑠)=𝐼 1 (𝑠)
𝑉 2 (𝑠)=𝐼 1 (𝑠)𝑅 − 𝐶𝑠

𝐶𝑠 𝑅

𝑉 1 (𝑠) 𝐼 1 (𝑠) 𝑉 2 (𝑠)

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 Example:12 Calculate Gain Using Mason’s Rule

𝐹 =𝑀 1 𝑠 2 𝑋 1+𝑘1( 𝑋 1 − 𝑋 2) 0=𝑀 2 𝑠 2 𝑋 2 +𝑘1 ( 𝑋 2 − 𝑋 1 )+𝑘2 𝑋 2

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 Example:12

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 Example:12

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 Example:13 Calculate Gain Using Mason’s Rule

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 Presentation Outline:

END OF UNIT-I

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